Scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum) forage and grain

Datasheet

Description

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Common names

Scrobic, kodo millet, koda millet, kodra, ditch millet, ricegrass, Indian paspalum, creeping paspalum, water couch, Indian crown grass [English]; herbe à épée [French]; jaringan [Indonesian]; rebu bawang, rumput kinangan [Javanese]; Ọkànli [Yoruba]; 鸭乸草 [Chinese]; कोदो, कोदों [Hindi]; கருவரகு [Tamil]

Species

Paspalum scrobiculatum L. [Poaceae]

Synonyms

Paspalum cartilagineum J. Presl, Paspalum commersonii Lam., Paspalum orbiculare G. Forst., Paspalum polystachyum R. Br., Paspalum scrobiculatum var. commersonii (Lam.) Stapf, Paspalum scrobiculatum var. polystachyum (R. Br.) Stapf

Related feed(s)

Description

Scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.) is a vigorous, tufted (up to 60 cm diameter) and slender perennial grass. It grows to a height of 0.3-1 m. The roots are rather shallow and the stems are ascending, branched and somewhat succulent. Leaf blades are 15-40 cm long, 5-12 mm wide, pale green. Leaf sheaths and leaves are glabrous. The inflorescence is a panicle, generally consisting of 3-4 racemes, 4-9 cm long. The spikelets are arranged in two or three rows. Seeds are ellipsoidal, 2 mm long, 1.5 mm wide and light brown coloured (Ecoport, 2010; Galinato et al., 1999).

There are two forms of scrobic:

Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum var. scrobiculatum) is cultivated as an annual. It has been cultivated for 3000 years in India where it is considered as a minor cereal crop except in the Deccan where it is a cereal of utmost importance. It is grown as a single crop or as the major cereal in mixed cultures. The seeds are used as human food: grains are ground into meal and used for puddings (Quattrocchi, 2006). In Africa, it is harvested as a wild cereal (FAO/ICRISAT, 1996) and is mainly considered as a famine food (NRC, 1996). Kodo millet varies considerably: light red grains are said to be sweet tasting and dark gray ones to be bitter (Galinato et al., 1999). Yields range from 450 to 900 kilograms of grain per hectare (Stephen et al., 1986). Kodo millet is well suited to dry conditions (Galinato et al., 1999).
Wild scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum var. commersonii) is perennial and mostly found in damp places. Wild scrobic is used for pasture and hay or as stand-over forage. It is also sometimes used for compost or mulch (FAO, 2010; Galinato et al., 1999; Baki et al., 1992). It withstands moderate grazing and requires rest periods to allow sufficient seeding for regeneration. Wild scrobic yields 3-10 t DM forage/ha (Ecocrop, 2010; FAO, 2010).

Wild scrobic often invades kodo millet fields and hybridizes with it, making it difficult to distinguish in the field the wild and cultivated scrobic complexes (de Wet et al., 1983). Wild scrobic populations can disappear several years after sowing (Bryan et al., 1973) and in one case it declined rapidly when the pasture was invaded by spear grass (Heteropogon contortus) and Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) (Bisset et al., 1974).

Distribution

Scrobic originated from Africa and is now widespread in the Old World tropics. It was first introduced to India and is now cultivated in other parts of Asia. Scrobic is common in upland rice in India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, and is also present in Bangladesh and Myanmar (Galinato et al., 1999). Scrobic was introduced to Australia from Zimbabwe in 1931 (FAO, 2010).

Scrobic is commonly found on disturbed sites or as a weed in cropping land (Galinato et al., 1999). It is found from sea level up to an altitude of 1500 m. It has no particular climatic preference provided that the average day temperatures are comprised between 25 and 27°C and that no frost occurs. The soil should remain wet (annual rainfall ranging from 800 to 1600 mm). It is well adapted to waterlogged or flooded soils. Scrobic thrives in cultivated fields, pastures, in marshes and along roadsides, dikes, bunds and canals. Wild scrobic has only limited drought tolerance as it has relatively shallow roots. Kodo millet thrives in drier conditions (Ecoport, 2010; FAO, 2010; Galinato et al., 1999).

Scrobic prefers very fertile and very clayey soils. It responds to well fertilized soils (Galinato et al., 1999; Baki et al., 1992), but tolerates poor soil fertility if there is little competition with other species. Scrobic prefers full sunlight but it is also found in young rubber and oil palm plantations or black pepper farms because it can tolerate and flourish with only 30-50% sunlight (Baki et al., 1992).

Environmental impact

Weed

Scrobic is an aggressive colonizer of disturbed areas and commonly invades agricultural fields (e.g. rice fields, sorghum fields). It is considered as a noxious weed in the USA and is potentially invasive in the Pacific Region (GISD, 2010; USDA, 2010; Galinato et al., 1999, Le Bourgeois et al., 1995; Baki et al., 1992).

Soil erosion control

Scrobic may have some value as a cover crop in its ecological niche (FAO, 2010).

Nutritional aspects

Potential constraints

Paspalum ergot

During their development, scrobic seeds can be attacked by the paspalum ergot (Claviceps paspali) whose sclerotia grow instead of the grains. These sclerotia contain an alkaloid that may be fatal to both humans and animals. Other fungi (Sorosporium paspali and Uredo paspali-scrobiculati) are almost invariably present in the outer husks of the grain, and may also be responsible for scrobic toxicity (Baki et al., 1992). Symptoms of ergotism in affected animals are associated with central nervous derangement and appear in the following order: excitement, distrust of people and a tendency to attack. Later, animals may tremble, appear to lack muscular control, stagger and fall. Affected animals may recover in a few days if removed from infected areas in the early stages of excitement (Cook et al., 2005; FAO, 2010; McMullen et al., 1998).

In order to prevent poisoning, the seeds of kodo millet are carefully removed from the outer husks and are winnowed to scatter the spores, so that only clean and healthy grains are used as food (Galinato et al., 1999).

However, scrobic appears less susceptible to Claviceps paspali than Paspalum dilatatum (FAO, 2010). In Australia, no cases of ergot poisoning have been reported in grazing animals (Baki et al., 1992).

Mycotoxins

Kodo millet grains are frequently infested by Aspergillus tamarii Kita which produces cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), a mycotoxin producing acute hepatotoxicity in humans and animals (Antony et al., 2003).

Oxalic acid

Scrobic forage contains 0.23% DM of total oxalic acid but this does not cause toxicity (FAO, 2010).

Ruminants

Wild scrobic forage is palatable at all stages and is readily eaten by cattle and buffaloes (Quattrocchi, 2006; Galinato et al., 1999). In Ghana, it was reported to be one of the most heavily grazed herbage species for cattle, sheep and goats (Tetteh, 1974).

Composition and digestibility

In Australia, the nutritive value of wild scrobic was found to be highly variable throughout the year. It was readily eaten and highly digestible up to flowering (70-75% DM digestibility and 50-70% crude protein digestibility). After frosting, intake and digestibility decreased substantially: DM digestibility was down to 30% and crude protein digestibility became negative (Milford, 1960). In Bangladesh, an intermediate OM digestibility of 54% was recorded (Zaharaby et al., 2001). Protein content was very low in Australia (2.8 to 7.3% DM) (Milford, 1960), but higher (11.7% DM) in Bangladesh (Zaharaby et al., 2001).

Pasture

Beef cattle

Scrobic pastures have been particularly studied in the context of beef cattle production in Australia, where it is able to support production during summer (December to March). Due to its high frost susceptibility, scrobic is unsuitable for continuously grazed pastures in areas where severe frosts are recorded, but it can be valuable in frost-free areas and can be a very useful subtropical pasture grass (Milford, 1960). For beef cattle, scrobic has a nutritive value similar to that of pangola grass (Digitaria eriantha) but more variable. At a stocking rate of 1.67 head/ha, scrobic pasture resulted in a live-weight gain of 240 kg/ha/year in young beef cattle, slightly lower than with pangola and much lower than with Paspalum dilatatum (315 kg/ha/year). At a higher stocking rate (2.5 head/ha), scrobic supported higher performances than pangola grass, Paspalum dilatatum and Paspalum plicatulum (345 vs. 305, 246 and 223 kg/ha/year respectively) (Bryan, 1968). When grazed as a component of a sown complex pasture mixture, light stocking rates (about 1.7 head/ha) were preferable (Bryan et al., 1973).

Sheep

Pure scrobic pastures supported much higher stocking rates for sheep (more than 40 sheep/ha for 4 months) than liverseed grass (Urochloa panicoides), Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus) and Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) (Paltridge, 1955).

Silage and hay

In Panama, scrobic made good silage when 10% molasses was added (Medling, 1972), and it also made excellent hay (Paltridge, 1955).

Straw

Scrobic straw is low in protein (lower than 4% DM) (Patel et al., 1959). Intake of scrobic straw by dairy cows (8.5 g/kg W) was found to be intermediate between that of wheat straw (7.7 g/kg W) and rice straw (10.6 g/kg W). Its organic matter digestibility (55.9%) was lower than for the other straws (wheat: 62.5%; rice: 66.2%) and a negative nitrogen balance was observed. Protein supplementation was recommended (Patel et al., 1961).

Pigs

Kodo millet

Weanling pigs from 8 to 32 weeks were fed on kodo millet used as a total replacement for maize with no deleterious effect on growth, feed intake or feed conversion (Bhadauria et al., 1988).

Poultry

Kodo millet

Kodo millet should not be included at more than 25% in broiler diets. Higher inclusion levels caused losses, lower body weight gains and resulted in higher production costs (Saraf et al., 2009).

Nutritional tables

Tables of chemical composition and nutritional value

Avg: average or predicted value; SD: standard deviation; Min: minimum value; Max: maximum value; Nb: number of values (samples) used

Scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum), aerial part, fresh

Main analysis	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Dry matter	% as fed	28.7	5.1	21.8	38.0	17
Crude protein	% DM	8.1	2.5	3.9	12.8	21
Crude fibre	% DM	33.5	4.1	28.2	42.4	20
NDF	% DM	69.2					*
ADF	% DM	39.2					*
Lignin	% DM	5.2					*
Ether extract	% DM	1.5	0.5	0.6	2.6	18
Ash	% DM	11.1	2.9	6.9	16.2	21
Gross energy	MJ/kg DM	17.6					*

Minerals	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Calcium	g/kg DM	3.7	1.3	1.7	6.7	18
Phosphorus	g/kg DM	1.9	0.9	0.6	3.3	18
Potassium	g/kg DM	20.0	5.8	10.2	27.6	14
Sodium	g/kg DM	0.1		0.0	0.1	2
Magnesium	g/kg DM	3.5	0.9	1.8	5.1	14
Manganese	mg/kg DM	266		258	273	2
Zinc	mg/kg DM	27		27	27	2
Copper	mg/kg DM	7		5	9	2

Ruminant nutritive values	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
OM digestibility, Ruminant	%	63.1					*
Energy digestibility, ruminants	%	60.3					*
DE ruminants	MJ/kg DM	10.6					*
ME ruminants	MJ/kg DM	8.6					*

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

References

CIRAD, 1991; Sen et al., 1965; Sen, 1938; Zaharaby et al., 2001

Last updated on 27/11/2012 15:48:53

Scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum), grain

Main analysis	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Dry matter	% as fed	88.4				1
Crude protein	% DM	12.0				1
Crude fibre	% DM	11.3				1
Ether extract	% DM	4.8				1
Ash	% DM	5.0				1
Starch (polarimetry)	% DM	67.5				1
Total sugars	% DM	1.4				1
Gross energy	MJ/kg DM	18.6					*

Minerals	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Calcium	g/kg DM	5.7				1
Phosphorus	g/kg DM	32.1				1

Amino acids	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Arginine	% protein	3.9				1
Cystine	% protein	1.1				1
Glycine	% protein	4.6				1
Histidine	% protein	2.1				1
Isoleucine	% protein	3.1				1
Leucine	% protein	10.4				1
Lysine	% protein	3.6				1
Methionine	% protein	1.9				1
Phenylalanine	% protein	5.6				1
Threonine	% protein	2.7				1
Tryptophan	% protein	0.9				1
Tyrosine	% protein	4.1				1
Valine	% protein	4.6				1

Ruminant nutritive values	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
OM digestibility, Ruminant	%	71.7					*

Pig nutritive values	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Energy digestibility, growing pig	%	72.4					*
DE growing pig	MJ/kg DM	13.5					*
MEn growing pig	MJ/kg DM	13.0					*
NE growing pig	MJ/kg DM	10.2					*

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

References

Kadkol et al., 1954; Krishnakumari et al., 1995; Swaminathan et al., 1970

Last updated on 24/10/2012 00:45:00

Scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum), grain, decorticated

Main analysis	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Dry matter	% as fed	88.3				1
Crude protein	% DM	13.1				1
Crude fibre	% DM	0.5				1
Ether extract	% DM	1.5				1
Ash	% DM	1.1				1
Gross energy	MJ/kg DM	18.3					*

Minerals	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Calcium	g/kg DM	4.0				1
Phosphorus	g/kg DM	13.7				1

Ruminant nutritive values	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
OM digestibility, Ruminant	%	92.3					*

Pig nutritive values	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Energy digestibility, growing pig	%	89.3					*
DE growing pig	MJ/kg DM	16.3					*

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

References

Kadkol et al., 1954

Last updated on 24/10/2012 00:45:00

Scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum), straw

Main analysis	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Crude protein	% DM	3.5				1
Crude fibre	% DM	34.3				1
Ether extract	% DM	1.5				1
Ash	% DM	12.3				1
Gross energy	MJ/kg DM	17.1					*

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

References

Sen, 1938

Last updated on 24/10/2012 00:45:00

References

Antony, M. ; Shukla, Y. ; Janardhanan, K. K., 2003. Potential risk of acute hepatotoxicity of kodo poisoning due to exposure to cyclopiazonic acid. J. Ethnopharm., 87 (2-3): 211-214
Baki, B. B.; Ipor, I. B., 1992. Paspalum scrobiculatum L.. Record from Proseabase. Mannetje, L.'t and Jones, R.M. (Editors). PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia
Bhadauria, S. S. ; Dhingra, M. M. ; Lakhani, G. P., 1988. Effect of incorporation of kodo (Paspalum scrobiculatum) in the ration of growing indigenous pigs. Livestock Adviser, 13 (3): 5-7
Bisset, W. J. ; Marlowe, G. W. C., 1974. Productivity and dynamics of two Siratro based pastures in the Burnett coastal foothills of south-east Queensland. Trop. Grassl., 8 (1): 17-24
Bryan, W. W. ; Evans, T. R., 1973. Effects of soils, fertilizers and stocking rates on pastures and beef production on the Wallum of south-eastern Queensland. 1. Botanical composition and chemical effects on plants and soils. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Husb., 13 (64): 516-529
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Crampton, E. W. ; Harris, L. E., 1969. Applied animal nutrition. San Francisco, Freeman
de Wet, J. M. J. ; Prasada Rao, K. E. ; Mengesha, M. H. ; Brink, D. E., 1983. Diversity in Kodo Millet, Paspalum scrobiculatum. Econ. Bot., 37 (2): 159-163
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Ørskov, E. R. ; Nakashima, Y. ; Abreu, J. M. F. ; Kibon, A. ; Tuah, A. K., 1992. Data on DM degradability of feedstuffs. Studies at and in association with the Rowett Research Organization, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, UK. Personal Communication
Paltridge, T. B. , 1955. Sown pastures for southeast Queensland. CSIRO Aust. Bull., 274
Patel, B. M. ; Shah, B. G., 1959. Studies on the composition of some cereal straws in Kaira district. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 29: 19-25
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Datasheet citation

Heuzé V., Tran G., Giger-Reverdin S., 2015. Scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum) forage and grain. Feedipedia, a programme by INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/401 Last updated on October 6, 2015, 12:07

English correction by Tim Smith (Animal Science consultant) and Hélène Thiollet (AFZ)

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Scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum) forage and grain