German grass (Echinochloa polystachya)

Datasheet

Description

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Common names

German grass, aleman grass, carib grass, creeping river grass, mudflat millet, Habetz grass, perennial barnyard grass, water bermuda [English]; zacate aleman, pasto alemin, pasto chiguirera, yerba de rio [Spanish]; pasto alemain [Spanish/Venezuela]; capim-mandante, canarana verdadeira, canarana fluvial, canarana de pico, capim de Angola [Portuguese]; pardegrao, prasi-grasi [Suriname]

Species

Echinochloa polystachya (Kunth) Hitchc. [Poaceae]

Synonyms

Echinochloa spectabilis (Nees ex Trin.) Link, Panicum spectabile Nees ex Trin

Related feed(s)

Description

German grass (Echinochloa polystachya (Kunth) Hitchc.) is an aquatic or semi-aquatic grass used for forage in tropical and subtropical wetlands.

Morphological description

Echinochloa polystachya is a perennial aquatic or semi-aquatic grass that forms extensive monospecific and highly productive stands (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008; Cook et al., 2005). It can grow in water as deep as 2 m and does not float. It develops coarse stems from a creeping root base anchored in the soil. The stems may be as long as 2 m. They are unbranched and rigid, and long enough to withstand flowing and rising water levels (El Bassam, 2010). The internodes are of equal length, and equal diameter. The nodes are densely hairy (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008; Cook et al., 2005). The leaves are linear, 20-60 cm long x 10-25 mm wide (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008). When leaves are submerged in turbid water, they cannot photosynthesize and only the emerged crown (that may be as high as 2 m) is productive (El Bassam, 2010). Their life-span is about 34 days. The inflorescence is a panicle made out of dense, short and thick ascending racemes which bear almost sessile spikelets. The spikelets are awned, lanceolate and about 5-7 mm long.

Uses

Echinochloa polystachya is an aquatic forage species that provides high yields of palatable fodder in natural wetlands and ponded pastures (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008; Cook et al., 2005). In Australia, it was introduced to improve the productivity of ponded pasture in combination with Para grass (Brachiaria mutica) (Cook et al., 2005). Such pastures are protein banks in periods of scarcity (droughts) and prevent weight losses in livestock (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008).

Distribution

Echinochloa polystachya originated from tropical and subtropical America, from the Southern USA to Argentina. It is commonly found in Mexico, the West Indies and in South America. It is widespread in the Amazonian Basin where it covers 5000 km² of floodplains (Piedade et al., 1997). In its native range, it forms dense highly productive stands. The Amity cultivar was introduced into Australia in the 1970s to improve the productivity of ponded pastures. In 2005, a survey among beef producers revealed that approximately 10% of respondents had planted German grass during pasture improvement programmes (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008). Echinochloa polystachya can be found between 30°S and 30°N, preferably in tropical and subtropical lowlands (FAO, 2015). It grows on seasonally flooded wetlands or under very high rainfall conditions (more than 1900 mm per year) (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008). It can grow in water up to 2 m deep and can survive up to 3 m deep for short periods. It cannot withstand droughts and will die under dry conditions. However, it can regrow from stolons during subsequent flooding (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008). German grass can grow on a wide range of soils with medium to high fertility provided they are very wet and not well-drained. German grass is tolerant of sodicity and salinity (Lukacs et al., 1992). It is a summer growing species and it does not withstand frost. It is generally protected from overnight frost by its aquatic habit (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008). Echinochloa polystachya growth is closely linked to the annual rise and fall of water levels over the floodplain surface (Piedade et al., 1994).

Forage management

German grass is a high yielding species with average DM yields of 8-12 t/ha in South America and 10-20 t/ha in Australia (Cook et al., 2005). It was reported to yield as much as 99 tons DM/ha in Brazil (Piedade et al., 1991). In Australia, it has been introduced to enhance the productivity of Para grass stands (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008). In India it was reported to yield much higher green biomass, dry matter and crude protein than Para grass (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008).

Because it grows in deeper water, German grass planting is recommended in mixed stands of aquatic grasses such as Para grass (Brachiaria mutica) or hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis), which do well in shallower water (planting depth 30 cm and 1 m, respectively) (Cook et al., 2005). German grass seeds are generally sterile, it is then recommended to propagate it by stem or stolon cuttings (2-3 nodes long, with at least one emerging node). Stem density should be about 1-2 t/ha. Stems should be manually planted into wet mud or mechanically into shallow water with a light weight tractor (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008).

Environmental impact

Weed potential and threat to biodiversity

Like other ponded pasture grasses, Echinochloa polystachya may be a threat for open waters outside its native range (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008). It spreads easily and, once established, it is impossible for native species to establish again. German grass has colonized banks, shallow margins of rivers, lagoons and swamps as well as non-target areas (Holm et al., 1991). In Australia, German grass was found to threaten the habitat of water birds such as waterfowl, magpie goose and pygmy-goose, by displacing native plant species or by closing open waters, on which and where they feed, respectively (Garnett et al., 2000). Echinochloa polystachya is considered a weed in many countries including Mexico, Argentina, India, DR Congo and Chad (Holm et al., 1991). In Australia, its weed control management must be planned (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008). Therefore, its import and new establishment are not recommended (US Forest Service, 2013). It is considered a weed in rice fields in Louisiana (affecting 5000 - 6000 ha) and Java (Griffin, 2006; Michael, 1989).

Fire potential

During the dry season large amounts of dry matter of Echinochloa polystachya may increase susceptibility to fire, and fire intensity (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008).

Nutritional aspects

Nutritional attributes

German grass has a relatively low protein content (8-14% of DM). Its protein and ash contents decrease with age. Its fibre content is always quite high, ranging from 55 to 65% of DM (Camarao et al., 2004; Campos et al., 2010). The aquatic form of Echinochloa polystachya has a lower DM concentration (17%) than the terrestrial form (23%) (Camarao et al., 2004).

Potential constraints

Nitrate and nitrite poisoning

German grass may cause nitrate and nitrite poisoning in cattle. In some cases, the nitrate + nitrite content of this forage can reach up to 20-25% of total nitrogen. Several outbreaks resulting in cattle mortality have been reported in Paraiba and Rio Grande do Norte in Brazil (Silva et al., 2006; Riet-Correa et al., 2005; Medeiros et al., 2003). Clinical signs of nitrate poisoning include anorexia, respiratory distress, teeth grinding, depression or hyperexcitability, tremors, abdominal contractions, salivation, nasal discharge, uncoordinated gait, cyanosis and recumbency. Nitrate accumulation in the plant is thought to occur after prolonged drought followed by rain, which is what happened for instance in 2001 in Paraiba, where nitrate poisoning caused the deaths of 5 out 11 animals after they were fed German grass regrowth (Medeiros et al., 2003).

Ruminants

Nutritive value

The DM digestibility of German grass ranged from 59 to 63%, with a protein content varying from 8.2 to 10.3% and NDF from 66.4 to 61.8% of DM. Corresponding intakes for sheep increased from 64.3 to 71.2 g/kg^0.75 as digestibility decreased (Combellas et al., 1973).

Palatability

German grass (Echinochloa polystachya) is more palatable to stock than para grass (Hannan-Jones et al., 2008).

Beef cattle and buffaloes

In Venezuela, with Criollo Limonero steers grazing Echinochloa polystachya pastures, supplementation with 1 kg concentrate or Leucaena leucocephala did not modify dressing percentage, carcass traits, cut yield, cooking traits and Warner-Bratzler shear force (Rodas-Gonzalez et al., 2007; Rodas-Gonzalez et al., 2006). Animals supplemented with leucaena had a lesser proportion of white viscera compared to those fed the control diet. All animals exhibited low levels of total lipids and cholesterol, which indicated that this meat could be sold as light meat or low fat meat, which is interesting from a nutritional point of view for the consumer: steaks had a good consumer acceptability and were considered tender meats (Rodas-Gonzalez et al., 2007; Uzcategui-Bracho et al., 2008). Buffaloes had higher live-weight gains than cattle when fed on flooded pastures containing Echinochloa polystachya (Camarao et al., 2004; Sheikh et al., 2002). Buffaloes are better adapted to live in floodplain habitats and their rumen microflora has lower N requirements than microflora of cattle, which excrete more N through the urine (Moran, 1983). Gains differ around the year: they are higher during the dry period (up to 678 g/head/day in August) than at the end of the wet period (333 g/head/day in June) (Camarao et al., 2004).

In the Brazilian Amazon, buffaloes are not used intensively for commercial milk production even though some farmers have obtained high yields (Camarao et al., 2004). The nutritive value of a mixture of Echinochloa polystachia and Brachiaria arrecta can be improved by the allowance of multi-nutritional blocks offered ad libitum to female buffaloes (Lopez-Maduro et al., 2001).

Rabbits

International literature on German grass utilisation in rabbit feeding is very scarce, with only one relevant paper from Peru being available (Pinedo Ruiz, 1982). This plant is largely used as pasture for cattle in tropical America (Sanchez-Villalobos et al., 2009; Piedade et al., 2010) and commonly grazed by the capybara, a rodent with a digestive system identical to that of the rabbit (Borges et al., 2007). Echinochloa polystachya is then considered a potential fibrous and low protein forage for rabbits. However, as nitrate poisoning has been reported in rabbits fed Bermuda grass or Para grass containing high levels of nitrate (Adegbola et al., 1965; Singh et al., 1983), this risk also exists for Echinochloa polystachya (see Potential constraints above) and it is recommended to pay attention to the nature of its nitrogen content before using it in rabbit feeding.

Nutritional tables

Tables of chemical composition and nutritional value

Avg: average or predicted value; SD: standard deviation; Min: minimum value; Max: maximum value; Nb: number of values (samples) used

German grass (Echinochloa polystachya), aerial part, fresh

Main analysis	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Dry matter	% as fed	16.7	4.1	10.2	24.0	10
Crude protein	% DM	10.6	2.8	5.4	16.0	18
Crude fibre	% DM	33.4	2.1	31.0	37.5	11
NDF	% DM	68.7	7.8	49.4	74.0	10
ADF	% DM	39.1	4.2	36.5	46.5	4
Lignin	% DM	5.2					*
Ether extract	% DM	3.1	1.3	1.0	5.3	17
Ash	% DM	11.8	2.0	8.0	13.9	15
Gross energy	MJ/kg DM	18.0		16.4	18.5	2	*

Minerals	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Calcium	g/kg DM	3.5				1
Phosphorus	g/kg DM	2.2				1
Magnesium	g/kg DM	1.8				1

Ruminant nutritive values	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
OM digestibility, ruminants	%	64.1					*
Energy digestibility, ruminants	%	61.3					*
DE ruminants	MJ/kg DM	11.0					*
ME ruminants	MJ/kg DM	8.8					*

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

References

Camarao et al., 2004; Campos et al., 2010; INFIC, 1978; Lopez-Maduro et al., 2001; McDowell et al., 1974

Last updated on 18/09/2016 20:21:54

German grass (Echinochloa polystachya), hay

Main analysis	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
Dry matter	% as fed	85.2		83.9	86.4	2
Crude protein	% DM	10.4		7.9	12.9	2
Crude fibre	% DM	33.9		32.2	35.5	2
NDF	% DM	69.1					*
ADF	% DM	39.6					*
Lignin	% DM	5.3					*
Ether extract	% DM	2.7		2.1	3.3	2
Ash	% DM	11.6		10.5	12.6	2
Gross energy	MJ/kg DM	17.9					*

Ruminant nutritive values	Unit	Avg	SD	Min	Max	Nb
OM digestibility, ruminants	%	60.6					*
Energy digestibility, ruminants	%	57.1					*
DE ruminants	MJ/kg DM	10.2					*
ME ruminants	MJ/kg DM	8.2					*

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

References

INFIC, 1978

Last updated on 18/09/2016 20:26:45

References

Adegbola, A. A.; McKell, C. M.; Casady, R. B., 1965. Assessing feed quality of fertilized Coastal Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.) with rabbits. Agronomy J., 58: 80-82
Borges, L. D. V.; Colares, I. G., 2007. Feeding habits of capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, Linnaeus 1766), in the Ecological Reserve of Taim (ESEC-Taim)-south of Brazil. Braz. Arch. biol. technol., 50 (3): 409-416
Camarao, A.P.; Lourenco, J.B.; Dutra, S.; Hornick, J.L.; Da Silva, M.B., 2004. Grazing buffalo on flooded pastures in the Brazilian Amazon region: a review. Trop. Grassl., 38 (4): 193-203
Campos, P. R. D. S.; da Silva, J. F. C. Vasquez, H. M.; Vittori, A.; Silva, M. D. E., 2010. Fractions of carbohydrates and of nitrogenous compounds of tropical grasses at different cutting ages. Rev. Bras. Zootec., 39 (7): 1538-1547
Combellas, J.; Gonzales, J. E., 1973. Yield and nutritive value of tropical forages. 4. Aleman grass (Echinochloa polystachya (H.B.K.) Hitchc.). Agronomía Trop., 23(3): 269-275
Cook, B. G.; Pengelly, B. C.; Brown, S. D.; Donnelly, J. L.; Eagles, D. A.; Franco, M. A. ; Hanson, J.; Mullen, B. F.; Partridge, I. J.; Peters, M.; Schultze-Kraft, R., 2005. Tropical forages. CSIRO, DPI&F(Qld), CIAT and ILRI, Brisbane, Australia
El Bassam, N., 2010. Handbook of bioenergy crops: a complete reference to species, development and applications. Earthscan, London, UK
FAO, 2015. Grassland Index. A searchable catalogue of grass and forage legumes. FAO, Rome, Italy
Garnett, S. T.; Crowley, G. M., 2000. The action plan for Australian birds 2000. Environment Australia, Canberra
Griffin, R. M., 2006. Echinochloa polystachya management in Louisiana rice. In PhD dissertation, Dpt Agron. Env. Management, Louisiana State Univ.
Hannan-Jones, M.; Weber, J., 2008. Pest plant risk assessment: Aleman grass, Echinochloa polystachya. Queensland Government, Department of primary Industries and Fisheries. p 1-30. Australia
Holm, L. G.; Pancho, J. V. Herberger, J. P. Plucknett, D. L., 1991. A geographical atlas of world weeds. Krieger Publisher Company, Malabar, Florida, USA
INFIC, 1978. Data from International Network of Feed Information Centres. Rome, FAO
Lopez-Maduro, R.; Miranda-Lopez, S.; Dean, D.; Montiel, N.; Zuleta, J.; Rojas, N.; Nava, Y., 2001. Milk production, body weight gain and pregnancy percentile in crossbred buffaloes with multinutritional block feed supplement. Rev. Fac. Agron., Univ. del Zulia, 18: 266-276
Low, T., 1997. Tropical pasture plants as weeds. Trop. Grassl., 31 (4): 337-343
Lukacs, G. P.; Pearson, R. G., 1992. A review of the environmental effects of ponded pasture systems. Aust. Cent. Trop Freshw. Res., Rep. 92/11, James Cook Univ, Townsville , Qld, Australia
McDowell, L. R. ; Conrad, J. E. ; Thomas, J. E. ; Harris, L. E., 1974. Latin American Tables of Feed Composition. University of Florida, 552 p.
Medeiros, R. M. T. ; Riet-Correa, F. ; Tabosa, I. M. ; Silva, Z. A. ; Barbosa, R. C. ; Marques, A. V. M. S. ; Nogueira, F. R. B., 2003. Nitrate and nitrite poisoning in cattle caused by the ingestion of Echinochloa polystachya and Pennisetum purpureum in the semiarid region of the state of Paraíba. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 23(1):17-20
Michael, P. W., 1989. Review paper on weeds of concern to northern Australia. North. Aust. Quarantine Strat., aust. Quarantine & Inspect. Serv., DPI&E, Canberra
Moran, J. B., 1983. Aspects of nitrogen-utilization in Asiatic water buffalo and Zebu cattle. J. Agric. Sci., 100 (1): 13-23
Moreno, H.; Perez, J.; Melendez, F.; Alvarez, J., 1977. Beef production on Echinochloa polystachya with different stocking rates. Trop. Anim. Prod., 2: 224
Perez Infante, F. ; Gonzalez, F., 1985. Performance of different pasture species with grazing dairy cows. Cuban J. Agric. Sci., 19 (3): 249-256
Piedade, M. T. F.; Junk, W. J.; Long, S. P., 1991. The productivity of the C₄ grass Echinochloa polystachya on the Amazon floodplain. Ecology, 72 (4): 1456-1463
Piedade M. T. F.; Long, S. P.; Junk, W. J., 1994. Leaf and canopy photosynthetic CO₂uptake of a stand of Echinocloa polystachya on the Central Amazon floodplain. Oecologia, 97 (2): 193-201
Piedade, M. T. F.; Junk, W. J.; Long, S. P., 1997. Nutrient dynamics of the highly productive C₄ macrophyte Echinochloa polystachya on the Amazon floodplain. Funct. Ecol., 11 (1): 60-65
Piedade, M. T. F.; Junk, W.; D'Ângelo, S. A.; Wittmann, F.; Schöngart, J.; Barbosa, K. M. D. N.; Lopes, A., 2010. Aquatic herbaceous plants of the Amazon floodplains: state of the art and research needed.. Acta Limnol. Bras., 22 (2): 165-178
Pinedo Ruiz, W., 1982. Utilization of four grass forage species [Brachiaria mutica, Pennisetum purpureum, Axonopus scoparius, Echinochloa polystachya] in rabbit feeding in the Tropic [Peru]. In: Thesis (Ing. Zootecnia), University National Agraria Selva, Tingo Maria, Peru, 67 pp.
Riet-Correa, F.; Medeiros, R. M. T.; Pimentel, L. A.; Santos, J. C. A.; de Araujo, J. A. S.; de Oliveira, O. F.; Dantas, A. F. M., 2005. Recently encountered poisonous plants of Paraiba, Northeastern Brazil. In: Panter, K. E.; Wierenga, T. L.; Pfister, J. A (Eds.), Poisonous plants - Global research and solutions, CAB International: 439-443
Rodas-Gonzalez, A.; Vergara-Lopez, J.. Arenas de Moreno, L.; Huerta-Leidenz, N.; Pirela, M.F., 2006. Slaughter characteristics, carcass traits and yield of Criollo Limonero steers fattened on pasture with supplementation. Rev. Cient., 16 (4): 371-380
Rodas-Gonzalez, A.; Vergara-Lopez, J.; Arenas de Moreno, L.; Huerta-Leidenz, N.; Leal, M.; Pirela, M.F., 2007. Effect of supplementation regimes and vacuum ageing on palatability of beef longissimus from Criollo Limonero steers fattened on pasture. Rev. Cient., 17 (3): 280-287
Sánchez-Villalobos, A.; Arráiz-Rodríguez, N.; Becerra-Ramírez, L.; Faria, N.; Montero-Urdaneta, M.; Oviedo-Bustos, A.; Zambrano-Nava S. A.; Boscán-Ocando J.; Molero-Saras G.; Pino-Ramírez, D., 2009. Infección por Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis en un rebaño criollo limonero. Rev. Cient., 19 (6): 555-565
Sheikh, P.A.; Azinilson, A.; McGrath, D., 2002. Habitat and resource selection of free-ranging buffaloes and cattle on a floodplain range in the lower Amazon, Brazil. In: Vale, W.G., Lourenco Junior, J.B.Ohashi, O.M. (Ed.) Proc. of the 1st Buff. Symp. Am., Belem, Para, Brazil, 1-4 September 2002, Assoc.Criad.Bufalos do Para, Belem, Brazil. pp. 521-524.
Silva, D. M. da ; Riet-Correa, F. ; Medeiros, R. M. T. ; Oliveira, O. F. de, 2006. Toxic plants for livestock in the western and eastern Serido, state of Rio Grande do Norte, in the Brazilian semiarid. Pesq. Vet. Bras., 26 (4): 223-236
Singh, A. P.; Prasad, J.; Rekib, A., 1983. Note on high-nitrate para grass (Brachiaria mutica) silage given to rabbits. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 9 (4): 325-331
US Forest Service, 2013. Echinochloa polystachya (Kunth) Hitchc.. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)
Uzcategui-Bracho, S .;Rodas-Gonzalez, A.; Hennig, K.; Arenas de Moreno, L.; Leal, M.; Vergara-Lopez, J.; Jerez-Timaure, N., 2008. Proximate composition mineral and cholesterol content of the Longissimus dorsi muscle of Criollo Limonero steers supplemented on pasture. Rev. Cient. 18 (5): 589-594

Datasheet citation

Heuzé V., Tran G., Giger-Reverdin S., Lebas F., 2017. German grass (Echinochloa polystachya). Feedipedia, a programme by INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/449 Last updated on April 26, 2017, 10:52

English correction by Tim Smith (Animal Science consultant) and Hélène Thiollet (AFZ)

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German grass (Echinochloa polystachya)