Dairy cattle
In dairy cows, Gliricidia sepium products are best considered as local protein supplements for grass-, straw- or crop-residue-based diets rather than as complete feeds. Fresh or wilted foliage can partly replace green forage without depressing intake or milk yield when inclusion is moderate. Dried leaf meal, blocks, pellets and concentrate mixtures are more versatile, but responses depend strongly on the accompanying energy source, the basal forage and the replacement rate. The most consistent results were obtained when gliricidia leaf meal was mixed with other supplements, such as cottonseed cake, maize bran, coconut poonac or rice bran. High inclusion in pellets, or complete replacement of a farm diet, was less reliable and could reduce milk yield or milk fat. Practical use should therefore be gradual, preferably with wilted or dried material, and diets should remain balanced for energy, minerals and fibre.
Fresh foliage
In coastal lowland Kenya, fresh Gliricidia sepium leaves and tender twigs were offered at 2.1 kg dry matter (DM)/day as a nitrogen supplement to mid-lactation Jersey cows fed Napier grass, maize bran and minerals. Total DM intake was not changed, and milk yield increased from 4.0 to 4.8 kg/day, though Clitoria ternatea and Mucuna pruriens gave similar or higher responses. Apparent DM and organic matter (OM) digestibilities were 60.3% and 58.8%, while in vitro OM digestibility of gliricidia was 53.5%. Gliricidia contained more tannins than the other legumes, but the level remained below the critical threshold cited by the authors and cows remained healthy throughout the trial (Juma et al., 2006).
Wilted foliage
In Tamil Nadu, India, wilted Gliricidia sepium leaves were offered at 0.70 kg DM/day as a 15% replacement for Bajra-Napier hybrid grass in mid-lactation Jersey x Red Sindhi cows. DM intake and milk yield were not significantly affected (7.41 vs 7.30 kg DM/day and 6.72 vs 6.90 kg milk/day), and milk fat, solid non-fat, protein and lactose were unchanged. The leaves were wilted for 6 h in the shade, and the silvipasture source produced 8.33 kg edible fresh biomass/tree over four harvests per year (Gunasekaran et al., 2017).
Dried leaf meal
In Morogoro, Tanzania, dried Gliricidia sepium leaf meal partly replaced cottonseed cake in Napier grass-based diets for crossbred dairy cows. A diet containing 23.4% Gliricidia leaf meal with reduced cottonseed cake maintained milk yield close to the cottonseed cake control (9.36 vs 9.46 kg/day), whereas the 18.0% and 39.7% Gliricidia diets gave lower yields. Gliricidia leaf meal had higher DM degradability than cottonseed cake (58.3% vs 55.1%), higher 48 h degradability (65.2% vs 59.8%) and higher metabolisable energy (ME) (10.0 vs 9.0 MJ/kg DM). Milk total solids, butterfat and protein were not affected, and the best gross margin was obtained with partial substitution (Shem et al., 2003).
In Uganda, dried Gliricidia sepium leaf meal was included at 3-9% of the diet in a maize bran and cottonseed cake supplement for Friesian cows fed banana-peeling diets. The trial did not isolate the effect of gliricidia, but the supplemented diets supported milk yields of 10.2-11.4 kg/day and did not affect live weight change. DM intake increased with 40% or 60% banana peelings. Milk fat and fat-corrected milk were lower at high banana-peeling levels, whereas milk protein and ash were unchanged. Blood metabolites were mostly adequate; potassium decreased at 60% banana peelings, phosphorus increased after banana peelings were included, and non-esterified fatty acids were lower at 40% and 60% (Nambi-Kasozi et al., 2014).
In Sri Lanka, Gliricidia sepium leaf meal blocks containing 75% leaf meal and coconut poonac, with or without rice bran, were fed to indigenous x Sahiwal cows in late lactation during drought. Total DM intake increased from 5.8 kg/day in the control to 8.6-8.7 kg/day with the blocks, and live weight gain was numerically higher. The block containing rice bran gave the highest milk yield (2.40 L/day), but the response was limited because cows were in late lactation. The blocks were rapidly consumed after being broken and mixed with water, and the rice bran formulation was considered to give the better nitrogen and energy balance (Somasiri et al., 2011).
In Sri Lanka, dried and chopped Gliricidia sepium leaves were pelleted with Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) for Friesian cows. The pellet containing 75% gliricidia and 25% Guinea grass slightly increased milk yield when it replaced 20% or 40% of the farm diet, but higher replacement rates, lower-gliricidia pellets and pure Guinea grass pellets reduced milk yield; complete replacement was unsuitable for high-yielding cows. Digestibility in heifers increased with gliricidia proportion, from 36.0% with pure Guinea grass to 52.5% with the 75% gliricidia pellet. Milk fat was maintained only with the 75% gliricidia pellet, while other milk constituents were not affected. Tannins and other antinutritional factors were possible constraints at high gliricidia inclusion, but the low protein and high fibre value of pure Guinea grass was also limiting (Munasinghe et al., 2021).
In Indonesia, 15% ground dried Gliricidia sepium leaves replaced part of the pollard, soyabean meal and rice bran in a concentrate fed to pregnant dairy cows entering lactation. Feed intake, DM and OM digestibility, feed conversion and milk production over the first three months of lactation were not significantly affected; total milk production was 859.1 L/head with gliricidia and 887.6 L/head in the control. DM digestibility was 56.7% with gliricidia and 58.3% in the control, and OM digestibility was 58.1% and 59.2%, respectively. Cow weight gain and calf birth weight were numerically higher, and the authors proposed 15% replacement in concentrate to reduce feed cost without impairing performance (Widiawati et al., 2019).
Beef cattle and heifers
Gliricidia products are best used in beef cattle as local protein supplements for grass-, stover-, straw- or silage-based diets, rather than as sole forages. Fresh foliage can improve growth on low-quality roughages, but it may partly replace basal forage intake and cattle need adaptation. Dried leaf meal and complete-feed mixtures are more reliable when they are combined with fermentable energy sources such as maize, molasses or cassava; moderate inclusion generally performed better than high inclusion. In silvopastoral systems, gliricidia can improve cattle performance when it does not compete excessively with grass, but cattle still select grass preferentially and browsing is seasonal. Diets containing gliricidia with tannin- and saponin-containing pods can reduce methane emission intensity, although effects on digestibility and growth depend on the whole diet. Familiarisation to Gliricidia sepium is required so that cattle can eat it readily and benefit from its high protein content (Wiersum et al., 1997).
Fresh and wilted foliage
In coastal Kenya, fresh gliricidia was offered to crossbred steers fed Napier grass at incremental levels up to 30 g DM/kg metabolic body weight. Gliricidia increased rumen ammonia and average daily gain (ADG) from 306 to 478 g/day, but it also displaced Napier grass intake and did not improve apparent digestibility. It was therefore useful as a nitrogen supplement to a low-nitrogen grass, but not as a simple intake stimulant (Abdulrazak et al., 1996). Fresh gliricidia was also tested with maize stover plus maize bran. Increasing gliricidia improved total DM intake, rumen ammonia and liveweight gain, although stover intake fell at higher supplementation. In a comparison with leucaena, gliricidia gave similar responses; gains reached 695 g/day at 30 g DM/kg metabolic body weight. Gliricidia was a practical alternative to leucaena for supplementing crop residues during feed scarcity (Abdulrazak et al., 1997).
In South Sulawesi, Indonesia, fresh or overnight-wilted gliricidia leaves replaced elephant grass (Cenchrus purpureus) in diets for growing female Bali cattle. Increasing gliricidia from 15 to 45% of diet DM increased intake, DM digestibility, ADG from 0.16 to 0.39 kg/day and feed efficiency. The results support using gliricidia leaves as a low-cost supplement for cattle fed elephant grass, but do not define the upper safe level (Rusdy et al., 2019). In Central Sulawesi, fresh chopped gliricidia leaf and young stem were mixed 1:1 on a DM basis with sun-dried cassava tuber and offered to Ongole bulls fed maize stover and Bali bulls fed elephant grass. Supplementation up to 1.6% liveweight/day increased total DM intake, liveweight gain and income over feed cost; maximum gains were 0.69 and 0.46 kg/day, respectively. Basal forage intake decreased, showing substitution rather than additive intake (Marsetyo et al., 2021).
In Venezuela, weaned Brahman x Holstein cattle fed sorghum silage supplemented with urea and minerals received fresh gliricidia, concentrate or both. Gliricidia intake was below the target set for concentrate, but liveweight gain increased significantly and responses per 100 g supplement were similar to concentrate. Low levels of fresh gliricidia could therefore replace part of purchased concentrate for cattle on sorghum silage (Zamora et al., 1994).
In Timor-Leste, male growing Bali cattle were fed fermented rice straw, rice bran, gliricidia and leucaena in five combinations. Ration intake was not significantly changed, but body weight gain and feed conversion differed between treatments. The best growth was obtained with the diet containing 35% gliricidia, 15% leucaena, 50% fermented rice straw and 5% rice bran, indicating that gliricidia can be used with other local legumes and rice by-products (Code et al., 2021).
Dried leaf meal
In Venezuela, crossbred heifers grazing Tanner grass received either no supplement, a commercial concentrate or a farm-made supplement containing dehydrated gliricidia leaf meal, maize meal and molasses. The gliricidia supplement increased ADG relative to grazing alone (556 vs 457 g/day) and advanced puberty by about two months, with no significant difference in puberty weight. The response was close to that obtained with the commercial concentrate (Gonzalez et al., 2003).
In Yogyakarta, Indonesia, dried gliricidia leaf meal replaced copra meal or soybean hulls in cassava-based concentrates for Ongole bulls under smallholder conditions. Supplements were offered at 1% liveweight/day. Current feeding gave 0.31 kg/day ADG, while gliricidia-containing concentrates gave 0.61-0.62 kg/day and doubled income over feed cost. Gliricidia leaf meal was therefore a usable local protein source in cassava concentrates, though the non-gliricidia supplement gave the highest ADG (Winarti et al., 2022). In West Timor, male Bali cattle were fed complete feeds containing dried and ground gliricidia at 10, 20 or 31% of diet DM. DM and OM intakes and nutrient digestibilities were similar, but the 20% gliricidia ration gave the highest daily ADG (0.99 kg/day) and the best feed conversion. Increasing gliricidia to 31% did not improve performance, probably because protein and energy supply became less balanced (Tahuk et al., 2022). In another study the medium-gliricidia ration improved meat percentage and meat:bone ratio compared with the lower-gliricidia ration, while slaughter weight, carcass weight, carcass percentage, fat percentage, non-carcass weight and most meat-quality traits were unchanged. Moderate dried gliricidia in a balanced complete feed improved carcass composition more than higher inclusion (Tahuk et al., 2020). In Bali, complete rations for indigenous Bali cattle combined rice straw, gliricidia, elephant grass, calliandra and concentrate. Increasing gliricidia with rice straw changed rumen fermentation; total volatile fatty acids and propionic acid increased, and microbial protein synthesis was highest with 20% rice straw and 25% gliricidia. The study supports gliricidia as a rumen-degradable protein source in straw-based rations, provided fibre and concentrate are kept in balance (Suryani et al., 2019).
Effect on methane production
In Mexico, crossbred heifers received diets in which Brachiaria brizantha was partly replaced by a dried and ground mixture of gliricidia foliage and Enterolobium cyclocarpum pods. Dry matter intake and rumen microbial populations were not affected. Inclusion at 15-30% reduced methane per unit of weight gain and increased digestible crude protein intake, but fibre digestibility decreased as legume-pod inclusion rose. The tannins and saponins contributed to the methane-mitigation response (Molina-Botero et al., 2019a). In a longer Mexican trial, crossbred heifers were fed for 80 days with or without 15% of the same gliricidia-Enterolobium mixture. Methane per unit of DM intake, digestible DM intake, digestible crude protein and annual gain decreased, while total daily methane, volatile fatty acids and the main microbial groups were little affected. The mitigation response persisted over time, but it was not explained by a general improvement in digestibility (Molina-Botero et al., 2019b). In vitro work using material collected in Mexico compared Brachiaria brizantha alone or mixed with gliricidia and Enterolobium pods. Gliricidia alone at 15% maintained methane per degraded DM close to grass alone, whereas mixtures including pods increased fermentation end-products and, in some mixtures, methane production. The test confirms that gliricidia and pods cannot be treated as equivalent methane-mitigation feeds and that combinations must be tested before field recommendation (Molina-Botero et al., 2020).
Silvopastoral systems
In Pernambuco, Brazil, signal grass monoculture was compared with silvopastures containing gliricidia or Mimosa caesalpiniifolia over four years. ADG was similar across systems, but gain per hectare tended to be lower in silvopastures, mainly because of competition between trees and grass, especially under mimosa. Gliricidia did not clearly improve beef output per area at this stage, but was less limiting than mimosa (Santos et al., 2019). In the same region, a later two-year evaluation found a stronger positive effect of the gliricidia system. ADG was 0.77 kg/day in signal grass-gliricidia, compared with 0.56 kg/day in signal grass monoculture and 0.23 kg/day with mimosa. Total gain per area followed the same order. The tree species was decisive: gliricidia enhanced livestock performance, whereas mimosa competed too strongly with the grass (Gomes da Silva et al., 2021). In the Brazilian silvopasture experiment, faecal carbon isotopes showed that cattle mainly selected signal grass rather than tree legumes, though gliricidia intake increased during the dry period. In situ work showed that gliricidia improved DM digestibility of signal grass mixtures, with values above 80% at high gliricidia inclusion after 48-96 h incubation. The practical value of gliricidia in silvopastures therefore depends on grazing access, season and cattle acceptance (Costa et al., 2021).
Sheep
Gliricidia products gave variable responses in sheep, depending on the product, processing, basal forage and inclusion level. The best results were obtained when gliricidia complemented low-quality grass, straw or cassava-based diets as a moderate protein forage, improving intake, nitrogen supply, digestibility or growth. Fresh or wilted leaves were generally better accepted than dried leaves, although dried leaf supplements were useful when inclusion was controlled. Ensiling with grass or cassava improved preservation and was effective when it corrected nitrogen or fermentable carbohydrate deficiencies. Poorer responses occurred when gliricidia replaced high-quality protein sources, formed half of an unbalanced roughage diet, or was used without sufficient adaptation. Tannins, odour and other secondary compounds may explain some reductions in palatability, fibre digestibility or growth, but low-tannin gliricidia did not consistently reduce methane. Gliricidia is therefore best considered as a complementary forage rather than a stand-alone concentrate replacement; moderate inclusion, previous adaptation, and adequate fermentable energy are essential.
Fresh or wilted foliage
In a multi-country comparison including Colombia, Costa Rica, Nigeria, Sri Lanka and Indonesia, sheep and goats distinguished between gliricidia provenances and often preferred local material. However, provenance had little consistent effect on intake, digestibility or live-weight gain when animals had no choice, suggesting that adaptation and biomass yield mattered more than provenance for feeding value (Stewart et al., 1998).
In Nigeria, fresh, wilted and dried gliricidia leaves were compared as supplements to Panicum maximum in West African Dwarf sheep. Fresh and wilted leaves were consumed better than dried leaves, and total intake increased as fresh or wilted supplementation rose. The authors recommended fresh or wilted leaves at 20-30% of the daily forage allowance (Smith et al., 1995).
In Indonesia, fresh gliricidia leaves fed as a sole forage to ram lambs had moderate intake and digestibility. Among the tree legumes tested, gliricidia had the lowest soluble phenolic and soluble proanthocyanidin concentrations, and it gave higher dry matter digestibility and digestible energy than calliandra or falcataria. Digestible energy was about 12.6 MJ/kg dry matter (Merkel et al., 1999b). Fresh gliricidia leaves supplied 25 or 50% of dietary CP in concentrate-based rations for growing lambs. Compared with the grass-control diet, gliricidia reduced ADG and gain efficiency despite similar DM intake. DM and nitrogen digestibilities declined as tree-leaf inclusion increased, suggesting protein binding by tannins and other phenolics (Merkel et al., 1999a).
In Guadeloupe, fresh gliricidia leaves supplemented pangola (Digitaria decumbens) hay in Black-belly rams. Total DM intake increased as gliricidia increased, CP digestibility and duodenal nitrogen flows improved, and hay substitution remained moderate. Fibre digestibility decreased and no positive associative effect with pangola hay was observed (Archimède et al., 2001). Green banana fruits and fresh gliricidia forage replaced imported maize grain and soybean meal in hay-based diets for Martinik lambs. High gliricidia supply increased intake and supported higher ADG than the control, whereas the lower level depressed gain and feed conversion. Adult rams maintained positive nitrogen balance, but CP digestibility was lower than with soybean meal (Archimède et al., 2010).
In Mexico, a diet containing 50% fresh gliricidia leaves and 50% Taiwan grass (Pennisetum purpureum) did not improve Pelibuey sheep performance. Total DM intake was lower than with grass alone, protein intake increased, and all sheep lost weight. The authors related the poor response to high foliage inclusion and possible toxic compounds (Grande et al., 2005).
In Nigeria, wilted gliricidia foliage replaced 25% of Panicum maximum in diets for West African Dwarf sheep. Gliricidia increased supplement and CP intakes, but growth remained low and was not better than with moringa or cassava leaves. Carcass traits and organ weights were not significantly changed by the type of foliage supplement (Fadiyimu et al., 2016). Wilted gliricidia fodder supplemented a basal diet of Panicum maximum and cassava peels in West African Dwarf rams. Gliricidia increased total intake, DM digestibility, CP digestibility and nitrogen retention compared with the basal diet alone, though the moringa-gliricidia mixture gave the best overall intake and nitrogen use (Kikelomo, 2014). Gliricidia fodder was fed with urea-treated cassava peels at 10, 20 or 30% of the diet in West African Dwarf rams. Feed intake was unchanged, but weight gain and feed conversion improved compared with urea-treated cassava peels alone. Most haematological variables remained within normal ranges, and 30% gliricidia gave the best overall response. Urea treatment reduced cassava-peel hydrocyanic acid content (Kikelomo et al., 2023). Diets containing 20% wilted gliricidia foliage, 50% guinea grass and 30% concentrate were supplemented with neem leaf meal in West African Dwarf ewe-lambs. Adding neem increased nitrogen intake and retention, but the trial did not include a diet without gliricidia, so it mainly shows that gliricidia can be part of a nitrogen-efficient mixed forage-concentrate diet (Shegun et al., 2017).
Dried leaves, hay and leaf meal
In Uganda, dried gliricidia leaves supplemented dried KW4 elephant grass (Cenchrus purpureus) in mature rams. Gliricidia reduced grass intake but did not significantly change total dry matter intake. Digestibility, body-weight gain and nitrogen retention improved, with the best response at 8 g dry matter/kg live weight/day; higher supplementation caused greater substitution of the basal forage (Mpairwe et al., 1998).
In Mexico, sun-dried gliricidia was included at 10, 20 or 30% in stargrass (Cynodon nlemfuensis) hay diets for Pelibuey sheep. DM, OM and CP intakes and digestibilities increased linearly, while rumen DM digestion of stargrass was not depressed. Microbial nitrogen supply tended to increase at 30% gliricidia (Ramirez-Aviles et al., 1998). In Mexico, gliricidia hay was included at 10, 20 or 30% in Buffel grass hay diets for hair sheep lambs. DM intake and DM and OM digestibilities were not affected. CP intake and digestibility increased, but NDF and ADF digestibilities declined as gliricidia increased. Tannins were not analysed (Avilés-Nieto et al., 2013). Dried and ground gliricidia leaves replaced 50% of soybean meal protein in isoproteic rations for growing Pelibuey x Blackbelly lambs. Gliricidia reduced DM intake, lowered ADG and impaired feed conversion. A mixed Guazuma-gliricidia treatment was intermediate, whereas Guazuma alone maintained performance. Unidentified secondary compounds were suspected as the main limitation (Castrejón-Pineda et al., 2016).
In Guadeloupe, sun-dried gliricidia leaves were ground and pelleted before being fed with Dichanthium hay to Texel and Blackbelly sheep. Intake and nitrogen balance increased, OM digestibility was not significantly changed, and NDF digestibility decreased. Methane per digestible OM intake was not significantly reduced by gliricidia, unlike more tannin-rich leucaena or cassava leaf pellets (Archimède et al., 2015). In the companion rumen-microbiology work in Guadeloupe, gliricidia pellets had lower condensed tannin concentration than the leucaena and cassava leaf pellets tested. In vitro, gliricidia had less effect on methane and volatile fatty acids than the more tannin-rich plants. In vivo, tannin-rich plant pellets did not affect protozoa numbers or Fibrobacter succinogenes (Rira et al., 2015).
In Japan and the Philippines, gliricidia leaf meal supplemented ammoniated rice straw in sheep. It increased total DM intake, digestibility except for fibre, nitrogen balance, microbial nitrogen yield and rumen outflow rate without reducing straw intake. Growth improved from 19.3 g/day with straw alone to 33.9 g/day with gliricidia, close to leucaena (Orden et al., 2000).
In Indonesia, naturally infected sheep received withered gliricidia leaves as 30 or 50% of forage intake, or 60 g/head/day of gliricidia leaf powder, for 21 days. Fresh withered leaves reduced faecal egg counts more than leaf powder during treatment, while most packed cell volume values remained normal. Haemonchus contortus was the dominant larva recovered (Sawitri et al., 2023).
“Forage salt”
In Brazil, gliricidia hay was mixed with mineral salt to make “forage salt” containing 93-99% hay and offered to confined Santa Ines crossbred lambs fed Tifton-85 hay. DM, OM and NDF intakes were not affected, but CP intake, ADG and feed conversion improved; the 99% gliricidia forage salt gave the highest gain. Gliricidia forage salt containing did not alter fasting slaughter weight, hot or cold carcass weight, carcass yield, chilling losses or red and white viscera weights. The product improved performance in the companion trial without detectable adverse effects on carcass and non-carcass traits (Cirne et al., 2012; Cirne et al., 2013).
Silage
In Brazil, gliricidia silage replaced part or all of the concentrate in maize-silage-based diets for Santa Ines lambs, at up to 40% as fed. Replacing concentrate with gliricidia silage did not significantly alter total rumen ciliate density or the main protozoal genera, indicating no clear defaunating effect under these conditions (Martinele et al., 2014). Gliricidia was ensiled with cassava biomass at 0, 20, 40 or 60% cassava and fed as 70% of total mixed rations for Santa Ines crossbred lambs. Cassava improved fermentation, and 60% cassava in the silage gave the clearest increases in intake, ADG, carcass weights and commercial cut weights, without changing feeding behaviour (Oliveira et al., 2018).
In Cuba, king grass (Cenchrus purpureus) was ensiled alone or with gliricidia foliage and fed to Pelibuey lambs. The gliricidia-king grass silage increased DM intake, DM digestibility, nitrogen intake, nitrogen digestibility and nitrogen retention compared with king grass silage alone. Mixed grass-legume silage was therefore more useful than grass silage where nitrogen was limiting (Santana et al., 2019).
Goats
Gliricidia sepium is mainly a protein-rich forage supplement for goats, not a reliable sole feed. Responses are best when it is offered as whole or wilted foliage with grasses or crop residues, combined with energy-rich feeds such as cassava peels, molasses or cereal concentrates, or used at moderate levels in balanced complete diets. Fresh gliricidia can be less readily selected than leucaena or other legumes, and intake depends on previous exposure, wilting, molasses and the physical form offered. Inclusion near 30-40% of forage DM has often improved growth, digestibility or nitrogen balance on poor grass diets, whereas very high or sole gliricidia feeding is less consistent. Drying or hay-making can improve intake and protein use, but gliricidia leaf meal may be less efficient than cassava or leucaena leaf meal. In dairy goats, gliricidia can replace conventional forage when diets are balanced with adequate energy and concentrates, generally maintaining milk yield and quality rather than markedly increasing them.
Fresh and wilted foliage
In Lao PDR, six growing local goats were offered gliricidia foliage hung above the trough, placed in the trough or stripped as leaves. Whole foliage gave higher DM intake and DM digestibility than leaves alone; DM digestibility was 75.1% when foliage was hung, 72.3% in the trough and 50.3% with leaves only. Gliricidia should be offered with petioles and stems attached (Keopaseuht et al., 2004). Growing goats fed Guinea grass with wilted gliricidia leaves had similar DM and OM intake to grass-fed goats, but CP intake increased. The best result was obtained with 30% of energy from gliricidia, with ADG 43 g/day versus 22 g/day without gliricidia and DM digestibility 53.3% versus 47.1% (Phimphachanhvongsod et al., 2002).
In Samoa, mature goats fed maize stover plus 50% gliricidia had higher DM intake and nutrient digestibility than goats fed urea-treated maize stover, though gliricidia was initially less readily eaten than erythrina or leucaena. Molasses improved gliricidia intake and CP and OM digestibility. Gliricidia is useful with maize stover, but acceptance may require adaptation or molasses (Aregheore et al., 2004a; Aregheore et al., 2004b).
In Nigeria, West African Dwarf bucks were fed fresh gliricidia, Panicum maximum and sun-dried cassava peels in several combinations. The diet containing 35% gliricidia, 35% Panicum and 30% cassava peels gave the highest ADG, while 70% gliricidia plus 30% cassava peels gave the highest DM digestibility. Sole gliricidia was less digestible and less efficient than mixed diets (Ifut, 1992).
In Indonesia, Kacang goats fed Napier grass supplemented with gliricidia foliage at about 15% of Napier grass DM intake gained 20 g/day, whereas unsupplemented goats lost 1 g/day. Total DM intake and digestibility were not improved because gliricidia largely replaced grass intake, but small amounts of tree-legume foliage corrected the poor growth obtained on grass alone (Van Eys et al., 1986). Old Guinea grass supplemented with 40% fresh gliricidia supported higher DM intake, CP intake, DM digestibility, CP digestibility, NDF digestibility and nitrogen retention than old grass alone. Nitrogen retention changed from a negative value on old grass to 67.9% of ingested nitrogen with gliricidia, similar to leucaena supplementation and young Guinea grass (Rusdy et al., 2019).
Fresh foliage in mixed dairy-goat rations
In West Sumatra, Indonesia, lactating Etawa crossbred dairy goats fed 50% gamal (Gliricidia sepium) forage with palm kernel cake concentrate (PKCC) and tofu waste had higher feed intake than goats fed field grass and tofu waste, while milk production was not significantly changed. Milk protein, fat, total solids and calcium were improved in the gamal treatment (Arief et al., 2023). Mixtures containing Mirasolia diversifolia, Gliricidia sepium or Indigofera zollingeriana with palm concentrate replaced company forage and concentrate. The mixtures containing 20% or 15% gliricidia maintained DM intake, OM intake, CP intake, digestibility, milk production and milk quality, but did not improve them significantly (Arief et al., 2023b). Replacing company forage with 50% cassava leaves plus gliricidia and replacing company concentrate partly with PKCC maintained Etawa crossbred dairy goat intake, digestibility, milk yield and milk composition. With 35% gliricidia, 15% cassava leaves and 35% PKCC, DM digestibility was 70.4%, compared with 68.4% in the control (Arief et al., 2023c).
Dried foliage, hay and leaf meal
In Jamaica, dried gliricidia leaf meal partly replaced concentrate nitrogen in energy-balanced kinggrass-based diets for lactating goats. OM intake was lower with gliricidia than with concentrate, and nitrogen digestibility was lower in legume diets, but milk yield and composition were maintained. Up to half of concentrate nitrogen can be replaced when energy is balanced with banana and molasses (Richards et al., 1994).
In Nigeria, air-dried mixtures of 50% moringa with 50% gliricidia were tested in West African Dwarf goats. Intake and digestibility were high and similar to moringa alone: DM digestibility was 76.3% and CP digestibility 83.9%. Nitrogen retention was lower than with moringa alone, but the gliricidia-moringa mixture remained a promising protein supplement (Asaolu et al., 2011). Gliricidia leaf meal used with low-quality Panicum maximum hay supported similar total DM intake to cassava leaf meal, but had lower DM and CP digestibility, nitrogen retention and ADG. Growth was 18.1 g/day with gliricidia, compared with 26.4-27.9 g/day with cassava or leucaena leaf meals. Gliricidia was useful, but ranked below the other leaf meals as a protein supplement (Yousuf et al., 2007). West African Dwarf bucks fed cassava peels with 25% gliricidia hay had the lowest feed intake and ADG among the tested cassava-peel diets. Equal supplementation with 12.5% gliricidia hay and 12.5% lablab hay performed better, giving 41.1 g/day and the best feed conversion. Mixed legume hay was preferable to gliricidia hay alone (Kikelomo, 2022).
In the Philippines, native goats fed cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica) plus gliricidia responded better to sun-dried gliricidia than to fresh or calcium hydroxide-treated gliricidia. Sun-dried material increased DM intake from 2.03 to 2.75% of body weight, DM digestibility from 55.8 to 72.6% and CP digestibility from 74.6 to 84.0%. Calcium hydroxide treatment did not improve fresh forage (Mondejar et al., 2020).
Ensiled products and complete silages
In Nigeria, cassava peels were ensiled for 3 months with 4% molasses and gliricidia at 2:1 or 1:1 ratios. Both gliricidia silages fermented satisfactorily and improved DM and CP digestibility compared with cassava-peel silage alone. DM digestibility was 73.8% in the 2:1 silage and 71.2% in the 1:1 silage, versus 61.8% in the control (Oduguwa et al., 2013).
In East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, complete silage containing a Pennisetum grass, gliricidia leaves, pollard bran and palm sugar was fed with soluble carbohydrates and fish meal. The diet with 45% complete silage, 40% soluble carbohydrates and 15% fish meal increased feed intake, OM and CP digestibility and ADG compared with lower fish meal levels. The result concerns supplementation of gliricidia-containing silage rather than gliricidia alone (Tahuk et al., 2025).
Acceptability and antinutritional factors
In Nigeria, West African Dwarf goats offered fresh gliricidia, leucaena and Panicum maximum as cut stems with leaves and fruits clearly preferred leucaena. Weekly intake was 48 kg for leucaena, 27 kg for Panicum and 18 kg for gliricidia. The goats inspected feeds by smelling and biting before selecting, and often ate fruiting bodies and leaves before stems (Odeyinka, 2000). West African Dwarf goats offered fresh leucaena and gliricidia mixtures consumed more leucaena than gliricidia. The highest feed intake, digestibility and growth were obtained with 75% leucaena and 25% gliricidia, not with higher gliricidia proportions. Urine colour changes indicated mimosine-related effects from leucaena at high levels, but signs disappeared as the trial progressed (Odeyinka, 2001).
In Venezuela, a comparative fodder-tree evaluation with sheep found low levels of tannin fractions in gliricidia and no detectable hydrolysable tannins; total polyphenols were 2.22% and total tannins 0.46%. Gliricidia had high potential DM degradability (84.0%) and was highly browsed, suggesting low antinutritional limitation under supplementary use (Garcia et al., 2006).
In Nigerian cassava-peel silages, gliricidia mixtures had low condensed tannin concentrations (2.6-2.8 mg/kg DM). Hydrocyanic acid was lower than in untreated cassava peels, particularly in the 1:1 gliricidia silage, and all silages had a pH below 4.5. Ensiling can therefore combine cassava peels and gliricidia while reducing cyanogenic risk (Oduguwa et al., 2013).
