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Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens)

Datasheet

Description
Click on the "Nutritional aspects" tab for recommendations for ruminants, pigs, poultry, rabbits, horses, fish and crustaceans
Larvae of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)
Common names 

Black soldier fly, black soldier fly larvae, BSF, BSFL, dried black soldier fly larvae, black soldier fly meal, Hermetia illucens meal, defatted black soldier fly meal, black soldier fly oil, black soldier fly larvae meal, black soldier fly prepupae meal, soldier fly prepupae meal, black soldier fly maggot meal [English]; mosca soldado negra, larvas de mosca soldado negra [Spanish]; mouche soldat noire, larves de mouche soldat noire [French]; mosca-soldado-negra, larvas de mosca-soldado-negra [Portuguese]; zwarte soldatenvlieg, larven van de zwarte soldatenvlieg [Dutch]; Schwarze Soldatenfliege, Larven der Schwarzen Soldatenfliege [German]; mosca soldato nera, larve di mosca soldato nera [Italian]; mosca soldat negra [Catalan]; mustasotilaskärpänen [Finnish]; crna vojnička muha [Croatian]; juodoji plokščiamusė [Lithuanian]; lalat tentara hitam [Indonesian]; lalat askar hitam [Malay]; czarna mucha, czarny żołnierz, larwy czarnej muchy żołnierza [Polish]; чёрная львинка, личинки чёрной львинки [Russian]; чорна львинка [Ukrainian]; fekete katonalégy [Hungarian]; svart soldatfluga [Swedish]; sort soldaterflue [Danish/Norwegian]; kara asker sineği [Turkish]; ruồi lính đen, ấu trùng ruồi lính đen [Vietnamese]; 黑水虻, 亮斑扁角水虻, 黑水虻幼虫 [Chinese]; アメリカミズアブ, アメリカミズアブ幼虫 [Japanese]; 아메리카동애등에 [Korean]; ذبابة الجندي الأسود [Arabic]; मैगट / ब्लैक सोल्जर फ्लाई, ब्लैक सोल्जर फ्लाई लार्वा [Hindi]; แมลงวันลาย, แมลงทหารเสือ, แมลงวันทหารดำ, หนอนแมลงวันลาย [Thai].

Species 

Hermetia illucens Linnaeus 1758 [Stratiomyidae]

Feed categories 
Related feed(s) 
Description 

The black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens Linnaeus 1758) is a fly (Diptera) of the Stratiomyidae family. Since the 1990s, rearing the black soldier fly has attracted considerable interest due to the ability of its larvae to convert organic by-products into protein- and fat-rich biomass, with potential uses in animal feeding, pet food, aquaculture, organic fertilisation, chitin production and other biobased applications. Black soldier fly larvae have been considered valuable feed ingredients because of their amino acid content, lipid fraction, mineral content and potential role in circular use of organic residues (van Huis et al., 2013; Diener et al., 2011). Research has confirmed that black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) products can be included in diets for several animal species when diets are properly formulated, as shown in the "Nutritional aspects" section of this datasheet. BFSL is often cited, and tested, as a local, environment-friendly replacement for protein-rich ingredients such as soybean meal (in poultry and livestock) and fishmeal (aquaculture).

However, the development of a BSFL industry remains context-dependent, and the commercial value of these products depends on numerous factors, including the types of substrate, processing costs, environmental benefits, regulations, and their competitiveness in target markets. In the 2020s, the sector still faces political, economic, legal, institutional and social challenges (Siva Raman et al., 2022; Frontier Economics, 2023).

Morphology

The adult fly is black, wasp-like and 15-20 mm long (Hardouin et al., 2003). The larvae can reach 27 mm in length, 6 mm in width and weigh up to 220 mg in their last larval stage. They are a dull, whitish color (Diclaro et al., 2009). The larvae can feed quickly, from 25 to 500 mg of fresh matter per larva per day, and with minimal disturbance on a wide range of decaying organic materials, such as rotting fruits and vegetables, coffee bean pulp, distillers' grains, fish offal, corpses (they are used for forensic purposes), and particularly animal manure and human excreta (van Huis et al., 2013; Diener et al., 2011; Hardouin et al., 2003). In ideal conditions, larvae become mature in 2 months, but the larval stage can last up to 4 months when not enough feed is available. At the end of the larval stage (prepupa), the larva empties its digestive tract and stops feeding and moving (Hardouin et al., 2003). The prepupae then migrate in search of a dry and protected pupation site (Diener et al., 2011). The duration of the pupal stage is about 14 days but can be extremely variable and last up to 5 months (Hardouin et al., 2003). The females mate two days after emerging and oviposit into dry cracks and crevices adjacent to a feed source (Diener et al., 2011). The adults do not feed and rely on the fats stored from the larval stage (Diclaro et al., 2009).

Uses

The black soldier fly is an extremely resistant species capable of dealing with demanding environmental conditions, such as drought, feed shortage or oxygen deficiency (Diener et al., 2011). One major advantage of Hermetia illucens over other insect species used for biomass production is that the adult does not feed and, therefore, does not require particular care. It is also not a potential carrier of disease. The larvae are sold for pets and fish bait, and they can be easily dried for longer storage (Leclercq, 1997; Veldkamp et al., 2012). A disadvantage of the black soldier fly for biodegradation is that it requires a warm environment, which may be difficult or energy-consuming to sustain in temperate climates. Also, the duration of the life cycle ranges between several weeks to several months, depending on ambient temperature, and the quality and quantity of the diet (Veldkamp et al., 2012). In aquaculture, using feeds based on black soldier fly larvae open additional marketing opportunities for farmers as some customers are opposed to the use of fishmeal in aquaculture feeds (Tiu, 2012).

Distribution 

Hermetia illucens is native from the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate zones of America. The development of international transportation since the 1940s resulted in its naturalization in many regions of the world (Leclercq, 1997). It is now widespread in tropical and warmer temperate regions between about 45°N and 40°S (Diener et al., 2011).

Processes 

Rearing

Methods for rearing black soldier flies have been proposed for a large number of substrates, which fall into two categories: food wastes and manures.

Food wastes

A review by Hopkins et al. (2021) of the food wastes studied for the rearing of BSF shows an extremely heterogeneous set of substrates. The studies used fruit and vegetable residues, cereal and grain by-products, brewery and distillery by-products, bakery waste, okara, winery residues, canteen or restaurant waste, poultry waste, fish waste, mussels, mixed food waste, sorghum, cowpea, and even wheat-seaweed mixtures. Among the 23 included articles, 16 used substrates containing grain-based ingredients, 15 used fruit and vegetable ingredients, 6 used animal-based ingredients, 4 used generic kitchen or food waste, and 1 used seaweed.

Rearing methods were far from standardised: rearing duration ranged from very short trials of 1–2 days on fish waste to long trials of up to 52 days on fruit or vegetable substrates; feed allowance ranged from 12.2 to 1530 mg per larva; and feeding strategies included a single initial provision, daily feeding, feeding every 2–5 days, weekly feeding, or ad libitum feeding. Initial larval age also varied substantially, from eggs or neonates to larvae already 12–14 days old. Environmental conditions were not uniform either, with temperatures mostly around 25–30 °C but with some higher ranges, relative humidity from about 40% to 75.6%, and light regimes including 0:24, 12:12, 14:10, 16:8 and 24:0 light:dark cycles. Differences in BSF larval composition across studies cannot be attributed to substrate type alone: they also reflect major differences in larval age, feeding rate, feeding frequency, rearing duration and abiotic conditions (Hopkins et al., 2021).

Rearing facilities use the migrating behaviour of the prepupae for self-collection: larvae climb up a ramp out of a rimmed container to eventually end in a collecting vessel attached to the end of the ramp (Diener et al., 2011). Optimum conditions include a narrow range of temperature and humidity, as well as a range of suitable levels of texture, viscosity, and moisture content of the diet. Temperature should be maintained between 29 and 31ºC, though wider ranges may be feasible. Relative humidity should fall between 50 and 70%. Higher relative humidity makes the diet too wet, and more generally the diet should have enough structure, otherwise the larvae may have a difficult time crawling on it, consuming it and getting an adequate oxygen supply (Barry, 2004).

It is necessary to maintain a year-round breeding adult colony in a greenhouse with access to full natural light. The greenhouse must be a minimum of 66 m3 to allow for the aerial mating process (Barry, 2004). Ranges of optimal temperatures, for mating and ovipositing, of 24-40°C or 27.5-37.5°C have been reported (Sheppard et al., 2002). Wide ranges of relative humidity are tolerated: e.g. 30-90% (Sheppard et al., 2002), or 50-90% (Barry, 2004). The greenhouse will need a container with a very attractive, moist medium to attract egg-laying female adults (Barry, 2004).

Manure

Manure has also been investigated as a substrate for black soldier fly larvae, but the results should be interpreted separately from studies using food waste or food-processing by-products. A PRISMA-based review of manure-valorising BSF systems identified 75 production systems using chicken, cattle, pig, horse or sheep manure, either alone or mixed with other organic materials, and reported large differences in substrate preparation, rearing design, production scale and conversion indicators. Most systems were still laboratory-scale, and performance varied widely according to manure type, nutrient composition, BSF strain, nursing phase, moisture management and climate control (Grassauer et al., 2023). Poultry litter has been reviewed separately as a potentially important circular-economy substrate, but its use raises specific questions about process optimisation, frass quality, pathogen risk and the legal acceptability of manure-fed larvae for feed use (Kullan et al., 2025).

Products

Black soldier fly larvae are used live, chopped or dried and ground. There are fed fat or defatted. There have been attempts to create a defatted meal by cutting the larvae to enable the leakage of intracellular fat and then transferring the material to a tincture press (Kroeckel et al., 2012).

Environmental impact 

The black soldier fly has been proposed as a solution to a number of environmental problems associated with manure and other organic wastes (van Huis et al., 2013).

Biomass conversion

Dense populations of larvae can convert large volumes of organic waste into valuable biomass (van Huis et al., 2013). For instance, larvae can reduce the accumulation of manure from laying hens and pigs by 50% or more without extra facilities or added energy (Sheppard et al., 1994; Newton et al., 2005; Barry, 2004). In Costa Rica reduction values of 65-75% have been observed in field trials with household waste (Diener et al., 2011). In confined bovine facilities, the larvae were found to reduce available phosphorous by 61-70% and nitrogen by 30-50% (Newton et al., 2008).

Odour reduction

Black soldier fly larvae are voracious and process organic waste very quickly, restraining bacterial growth and thereby significantly reducing the production of bad odours. Moreover, the larvae species aerates and dries the manure, reducing odours (van Huis et al., 2013).

Housefly control

Black soldier fly larvae are a competitor to housefly larvae (Musca domestica), as they make manure more liquid and thus less suitable for housefly larvae. Their presence is also believed to inhibit ovipositing by the housefly. For instance, they have been shown to reduce the housefly population of pig or poultry manure by 94-100%. As a result, they can help to control housefly populations in livestock farms and in households with poor sanitation, thereby improving the health status of animals and people since the housefly is a major vector of disease (Sheppard et al., 1994; Newton et al., 2005).

Low pathogenicity

Unlike other fly species, Hermetia illucens is not a disease vector: not only the eggs are never laid on decaying organic material, but, since the adult fly cannot eat due to its lack of functioning mouthparts, it does not come in contact with unsanitary waste materials. Additionally, the larvae modify the microflora of manure, potentially reducing harmful bacteria such as Escherichia coli 0157:H7 and Salmonella enterica (van Huis et al., 2013). It has been suggested that the larvae contain natural antibiotics (Newton et al., 2008).

Limitations

Substrates 

The environmental benefits of BSFL as "waste-to-feed" transformers are under several constraints. First, the nutritive quality of the final product is heavily influenced by the substrate: one cannot feed BSFL any sort of substrate and expect consistent composition, notably in terms of protein content and quality (Hopkins et al., 2012). Secondly, feed-grade BSFL production still requires biosecurity and hygiene control. In the existing EU legal framework (as of 2026), BSFL products are subject to regulations regarding feed safety, substrates used to feed insects, hygiene, traceability, and manufacturing requirements. Particularly, the use of substrates such as slaughterhouse or rendering derived products, manure, or catering waste remains prohibited or strictly regulated for insects, as they are for other domestic animals (IPIFF, 2026). The value of BSFL as waste transformers is thus limited by the legal availability of these substrates, and by the quality of the substrates themselves.

Life cycle assessments

Life cycle assessments (LCAs) of insect production have moved from broad claims of environmental superiority to more cautious, system-specific evaluations. Reviews from the 2020s show that results vary widely according to insect species, rearing substrate, system boundaries, functional unit, allocation method, energy source and whether insects are assessed mainly as feed ingredients, food products or waste-treatment agents (Ribeiro et al., 2026). Black soldier fly systems can show favourable environmental profiles when larvae are reared on low-opportunity-cost organic residues and when credits are given for avoided waste treatment, but this advantage is not automatic. Under European conditions, non-residue feed inputs, heating and drying can dominate the environmental burden, and insect protein may have higher impacts than soybean meal or fishmeal in some scenarios (Beyers et al., 2023). Conversely, studies focused on organic-waste treatment often find that black soldier fly larvae can reduce impacts compared with conventional waste-management routes, depending on local conditions and the reference system (Ferronato et al., 2024; Ramzy et al., 2025). Overall, current LCAs support the potential of insect production in circular bioeconomy systems, but they do not justify generic claims that insect meals are intrinsically more sustainable than conventional protein sources.

Nutritional aspects
Nutritional attributes 

Black soldier fly larvae are a high-value feed source, rich in protein and fat. They contain about 40-44% DM protein. The amount of fat is extremely variable and depends on the type of diet and on its fat content: reported values are 15-25% DM (larvae fed on poultry manure, Arango Gutierrez et al., 2004), 28% DM (swine manure, Newton et al., 2005), 35% DM (cattle manure, Newton et al., 1977), and 42-49% DM (oil-rich food waste, Barry, 2004). They tend to contain less protein and more lipids than housefly maggots (Musca domestica). Ash content is relatively high but variable, from 11 to 28% DM. The larvae are rich in calcium (5-8% DM) and phosphorus (0.6-1.5% DM) (Newton et al., 1977; St-Hilaire et al., 2007b; Arango Gutierrez et al., 2004; Yu et al., 2009a). The amino acid profile is particularly rich in lysine (6-8% of the protein). The dry matter content of fresh larvae is quite high, in the 35-45% range, which makes them easier and less costly to dehydrate than other fresh by-products (Newton et al., 2008).

The fatty acid composition of the larvae depends on the fatty acid composition of the diet. The lipids of larvae fed cow manure contained 21% of lauric acid, 16% of palmitic acid, 32% of oleic acid and 0.2% of omega-3 fatty acids while those proportions were 43%, 11%, 12% and 3%, respectively, for larvae fed 50% fish offal and 50% cow manure. Total lipid content also increased from 21% to 30% DM. Feeding black soldier fly larvae with a diet made of wastes containing desirable omega-3 fatty acids is, therefore, a way to enrich the final biomass (St-Hilaire et al., 2007b).

Potential constraints 

Pathogen risk in black soldier fly production should be treated as a substrate- and process-dependent feed safety issue rather than as an intrinsic safety concern of the insect. Adult black soldier flies are not generally considered important disease vectors, and larvae can reduce some bacterial populations during bioconversion, but contaminated substrates may introduce foodborne pathogens, hygiene indicators, parasites or antimicrobial-resistance determinants into the production chain. Experimental studies have shown substantial reductions of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli during larval treatment under some conditions, but the reduction is not guaranteed and may depend on substrate type, feeding regime, timing of contamination, larval density, temperature and downstream handling. Pathogens or hygiene indicators may also be detected in residues or frass even when they are not detected in the larvae themselves, and spore-forming bacteria such as Bacillus cereus remain a specific concern. Therefore, BSF larvae intended for feed should be produced only on authorised and controlled substrates, separated carefully from residues, and subjected to validated processing steps, microbiological monitoring and HACCP-based hygiene management. Pathogen risks are thus manageable when substrates, rearing conditions and post-harvest processing are controlled (EFSA, 2015; Lopes et al., 2020; FSA, 2022; Hoek et al., 2024).

Ruminants 

Black soldier fly products in ruminants have so far been studied mainly as black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) meal or pre-pupae meal, and as BSFL fat or Hermetia illucens oil (HIO) in dairy cows (Haasbroek, 2016; Nekrasov et al., 2022; Rastello et al., 2025). The current evidence is favourable but still limited: BSFL meal appears to be a protein- and mineral-rich ingredient requiring processing to control fat and rumen degradability, while BSFL fat or oil can replace conventional lipid sources at the tested doses without major adverse effects on intake, milk composition or metabolic status (Haasbroek, 2016; Nekrasov et al., 2022; Rastello et al., 2025). In dairy cows, BSFL fat or oil improved milk yield, feed efficiency or antioxidant status in the two in vivo trials available, but the evidence is not yet sufficient to define optimum dose, long-term response or interactions with forage type and rumen microbiota (Nekrasov et al., 2022; Rastello et al., 2025).

Nutritional value and rumen degradability

BSFL meal is a potential source of crude protein (CP), amino acids, fat and calcium, but fat content and processing strongly affect its rumen degradation profile (Haasbroek, 2016). BSFL fat or oil is a concentrated energy ingredient rich in saturated fatty acids, especially lauric acid, and is better considered as a lipid source than as a protein source (Nekrasov et al., 2022; Rastello et al., 2025).

Rumen degradation data have been obtained from in vitro and in sacco incubations using rumen fluid or cannulated Holstein cows. In vitro effective CP degradability ranged from 35.1% in full-fat BSF pre-pupae meal to 65.3% in defatted BSF pre-pupae meal, while in sacco effective CP degradability ranged from 37.9% in full-fat BSFL meal to 80.4% in defatted BSF pre-pupae meal. Full-fat treatments had the highest calculated rumen undegradable protein (RUP) fractions, but the author considered this partly artefactual because fat coated particles and formed clumps that reduced solubility and microbial attachment; better defatting and processing were therefore recommended before using BSFL meal as a by-pass protein source (Haasbroek, 2016).

Performance

Low to moderate amounts of BSFL fat or oil did not reduce feed intake in dairy cows and were associated with higher milk output or feed efficiency, although the size and significance of the response depended on dose and comparator fat (Nekrasov et al., 2022; Rastello et al., 2025). At the time of writing, no in vivo feeding trial has yet shown the effect of BSFL meal itself on ruminant growth or milk production, as the available meal study was limited to rumen degradability (Haasbroek, 2016).

Nekrasov fed 10 or 100 g/cow/day BSFLF to dairy cows in early lactation. The 10 g/cow/day dose gave a non-significant 4.9% increase in average daily milk yield, while 100 g/cow/day significantly increased natural-fat milk by 8.0% over the experimental period (Nekrasov et al., 2022).

Rastello replaced hydrogenated palm fat (HPF) with HIO in a pelleted concentrate at 3% as fed, corresponding to 3.4% of concentrate DM, about 162 g/cow/day HIO and about 58 g/cow/day lauric acid (Rastello et al., 2025). Total DM intake and concentrate intake were not reduced, and no concentrate refusals were reported (Rastello et al., 2025). HIO increased milk yield by 0.82 kg/cow/day, energy-corrected milk (ECM) by 0.74 kg/cow/day and fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM) by 0.72 kg/cow/day, and it lowered residual feed intake (RFI), although feed conversion ratio (FCR) did not change (Rastello et al., 2025).

Product quality

Milk composition was generally unchanged by BSFL fat or oil, but BSFLF modified some milk metabolic indicators and fatty acid traits (Nekrasov et al., 2022; Rastello et al., 2025). Rastello observed no significant effects of HIO on milk fat, protein, casein, lactose, component yields or somatic cell count (SCC) compared with HPF; milk urea was slightly higher but remained low and was not considered detrimental by the authors (Rastello et al., 2025). Nekrasov reported no significant changes in the main composition and quality of milk, although milk dry matter tended to increase and the fat:protein ratio was more favourable in cows receiving BSFLF (Nekrasov et al., 2022).

In the latter trial, milk acetone and beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) decreased with BSFLF, suggesting a more favourable energy metabolism in that experiment. BSFLF changed milk fatty acid composition, especially at 10 g/cow/day, with higher short-chain and medium-chain fatty acids and a small increase in the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in the supplemented groups. SCC was numerically lower in both BSFLF groups but the difference was not significant (Nekrasov et al., 2022).

Health and digestive physiology

Current studies do not indicate overt health problems at the tested doses; rather, they point to effects on rumen fermentation and oxidative status (Nekrasov et al., 2022; Rastello et al., 2025).

In the Nekrasov trial, no toxicity of BSFLF was detected in a Tetrahymena pyriformis assay over the tested concentration range. In cows, BSFLF decreased rumen pH from 7.16 to 6.80-6.85 while remaining within a normal range, increased total volatile fatty acids (VFA) from 6.56 to 8.66-10.37 mmol/100 mL, and reduced ammonia nitrogen at 100 g/cow/day. These changes were accompanied by higher amylolytic activity at 10 g/cow/day and numerical increases in total microbial mass or infusoria, suggesting a change in rumen fermentation rather than a simple energy effect (Nekrasov et al., 2022).

Blood biochemical and morphological parameters remained within physiological ranges in cows fed BSFLF, although cholesterol and glucose were lower at 100 g/cow/day and total bilirubin was higher, all within reference ranges. Serum lysozyme activity and bactericidal activity increased in the BSFLF groups, and total water-soluble antioxidant activity was numerically highest at 100 g/cow/day (Nekrasov et al., 2022).

In Rastello, HIO did not affect plasma non-esterified fatty acids, cholesterol, glucose, triglycerides, urea or BHB, and serum antioxidant capacity was unchanged. However, HIO lowered derivatives of reactive oxygen metabolites, suggesting reduced oxidative stress, and it did not impair total-tract DM, organic matter or ether extract digestibility. Neutral detergent fibre digestibility tended to be 2.1 percentage points lower with HIO, a response consistent with possible inhibitory effects of lauric acid or medium-chain saturated fatty acids on fibrolytic rumen microbes, but this did not depress milk output (Rastello et al., 2025).

Behaviour

Behaviour has not been directly studied, but the available feeding data do not suggest obvious palatability problems at the tested doses (Nekrasov et al., 2022; Rastello et al., 2025). Rastello reported that the experimental concentrates were always eaten and that total DM intake was not significantly affected by replacing HPF with HIO (Rastello et al., 2025). Nekrasov administered BSFLF individually by hand and did not report behavioural or refusal problems (Nekrasov et al., 2022).

Pigs 

Black soldier fly larvae products can be used in pig diets as protein and fat ingredients when diets are balanced for amino acids, minerals and energy. Dried BSFL meal is palatable and valuable for protein, lipid and calcium supply, but that its high ash or chitin fractions and its relatively limiting sulphur amino acids or threonine must be considered in formulation (Newton et al., 1977; Crosbie et al., 2020; Hosseindoust et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2024). In weaned pigs, moderate levels of BSFL meal generally maintain growth and can improve performance or gut resilience under sanitary or pathogenic challenge, whereas excessive replacement of high-quality animal proteins may reduce early post-weaning performance (Biasato et al., 2019; Jin et al., 2021; Tang et al., 2022; Boontiam et al., 2022; Phaengphairee et al., 2023; Noh et al., 2026). In growing and finishing pigs, BSFL meal can replace fishmeal or soybean meal-based protein without adverse effects, and several trials reported improvements in carcass or pork quality traits, but full-fat products may increase fat deposition and require control of energy supply (Chia et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2019b; Zhu et al., 2022; Chang et al., 2025).

Nutritional value and digestibility

BSFL products are useful feed ingredients, but their feeding value is product-dependent: full-fat meals supply more energy, defatted meals supply more concentrated protein, and chitin or inappropriate processing can limit digestibility.

Dried BSFL meal produced from larvae grown on cattle manure contained 42% crude protein, 35% ether extract and 5% calcium, and was accepted by pigs in a choice test; however, its diet had lower apparent dry matter, nitrogen, ash and nitrogen-free extract digestibility than a soybean meal diet, and nitrogen retention appeared to be limited by amino acid balance (Newton et al., 1977). Full-fat and defatted BSFL meals both had high standardised ileal digestibility (SID) for most amino acids in growing pigs, with SID of crude protein around 80.6% and SID of lysine around 88.0%; full-fat BSFL meal had higher digestible energy, metabolisable energy and predicted net energy than defatted BSFL meal, at 20.63, 19.12 and 14.55-14.56 MJ/kg dry matter, compared with 16.50, 14.22 and 9.57-11.05 MJ/kg dry matter, respectively (Crosbie et al., 2020).

Apparent ileal digestibility and SID of several amino acids were lower for BSFL meal than for fishmeal in weaned pigs, but average amino acid digestibility did not differ among fishmeal, BSFL meal and extruded BSFL, suggesting that processing may partly improve its digestibility (Hosseindoust et al., 2023). Defatted BSFL meal had crude protein digestibility and nitrogen retention comparable to fishmeal, whereas hydrolysed BSFL meal had lower crude protein digestibility and higher blood urea nitrogen, indicating poorer protein utilisation in that trial (Lee et al., 2024).

Digestibility responses were not uniform in complete diets. Full-fat BSFL at 12%, with or without multi-probiotics, improved apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of dry matter, crude protein and ether extract compared with an unsupplemented diet in weaned pigs (Phaengphairee et al., 2023). In contrast, increasing full-fat BSFL meal from 0% to 4% in weanling piglets caused linear and quadratic decreases in crude protein and crude fat digestibility, with the lowest values at 4%, while dry matter and organic matter digestibility were unchanged (Yu et al., 2020). Replacing 1% fishmeal with 1% or 2% BSFL powder improved crude protein and amino acid digestibility in growing-finishing pigs without changing growth performance (Chang et al., 2025).

Performance

At practical inclusion levels, BSFL products usually maintain pig performance, and the clearest positive responses occur when the ingredient replaces fishmeal or when piglets are under post-weaning challenge; nevertheless, the optimum level depends strongly on pig age, protein source replaced and product quality.

In weaned pigs kept under standard conditions, partially defatted BSFL meal included at 5% or 10% had no adverse effect on body weight, average daily gain (ADG) or feed conversion ratio (FCR), though average daily feed intake (ADFI) increased linearly during the second feeding phase at the highest inclusion rate (Biasato et al., 2019). Full-fat BSFL meal replacing 25% or 50% of animal protein sources in nursery diets supported overall ADG, ADFI, gain-to-feed ratio and final body weight similar to conventional diets with or without antibiotics (Crosbie et al., 2021). Dietary BSFL at 4% or 8% did not change growth performance over 28 days before enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) K88 challenge (Jin et al., 2021).

Low to moderate inclusion sometimes improved the early post-weaning period. In a 28-day weanling trial, 2% full-fat BSFL meal partly replacing fishmeal increased body weight at day 14 and ADG from day 1 to 14, and reduced the feed-to-gain ratio during the same period, but did not affect overall day 1-28 performance or diarrhoea rate (Yu et al., 2020). Complete replacement of fishmeal by BSFL meal under an ETEC K88 environment increased ADG and ADFI from day 1 to 14 and reduced diarrhoea compared with the unsupplemented negative control, although zinc oxide gave the lowest diarrhoea values (Tang et al., 2022). Under poor sanitary conditions, 6% and 12% full-fat BSFL increased body weight and ADFI during phase II compared with the unsanitary control, with the authors identifying 12% as the more effective inclusion level (Boontiam et al., 2022).

Responses were less favourable when too much plasma protein was replaced. Defatted BSFL meal replacing 25% of plasma protein gave the highest body weight after two weeks, but ADG and gain-to-feed ratio decreased linearly during phase I as the replacement level increased, and the final body weight after four weeks was not different among treatments (Noh et al., 2026). In another antibiotic-replacement study, 12% full-fat BSFL plus multi-probiotics improved overall ADG and gain-to-feed ratio to levels comparable with the amoxicillin control, while 12% BSFL without probiotics gave intermediate responses and diarrhoea rate was not significantly affected (Phaengphairee et al., 2023). Defatted BSFL meal used as a fishmeal replacement improved final body weight, ADG, FCR and feed cost per kg gain in weaned pigs, whereas hydrolysed BSFL meal gave intermediate responses (Lee et al., 2024). BSFL oil blends replacing part of soybean or palm kernel oil did not affect body weight, ADG, ADFI or gain-to-feed ratio in two post-weaning trials (Buffoni et al., 2025).

In older pigs, performance results were neutral to positive. In finisher pigs, replacing fishmeal with BSFL meal at 50-100% improved ADG and FCR and increased final body weight at 50% and 100% replacement (Chia et al., 2021). In finishing pigs fed 0%, 4% or 8% BSFL meal, 4% increased final body weight and ADG and reduced feed-to-gain ratio, whereas 8% did not improve growth compared with the control (Yu et al., 2019b). In a longer growing-pig trial, 8% BSFL increased ADG compared with the control and 4% treatment (Zhu et al., 2022). By contrast, replacing 1% fishmeal with 1% or 2% BSFL powder in growing-finishing pigs did not affect body weight, ADG, ADFI or gain-to-feed ratio (Chang et al., 2025).

Product quality

BSFL meal can improve several carcass and pork quality traits, particularly marbling, intramuscular fat and flavour-related metabolites, but full-fat products may also increase backfat and should not be treated as simple protein ingredients.

In finisher pigs, replacing fishmeal with BSFL meal at 50%, 75% or 100% increased carcass weight compared with the fishmeal control, while dressing percentage and loin eye area were not changed. The same study reported higher weights of several primal cuts at higher replacement levels, increased backfat and fat-skin deposition at 100% replacement, and a lower fat-free index at 75% and 100% replacement than in the control; crude protein content of pork tissues remained high across dietary treatments, ranging from 65% to 93% on a dry matter basis (Chia et al., 2021).

In finishing pigs, 4% and 8% BSFL meal increased loin-eye area, marbling scores and inosine monophosphate in the longissimus thoracis muscle, while 4% BSFL increased intramuscular fat and up-regulated lipogenic genes and myosin heavy-chain IIa expression (Yu et al., 2019b). In growing pigs, 4% and 8% BSFL increased intramuscular fat and reduced drip loss, and 8% increased first intercostal backfat and ADG; however, loin-eye area was lower in the BSFL-fed pigs than in the control (Zhu et al., 2022). These two studies agree that BSFL can modify lipid deposition and meat-quality indicators, but they differ on the inclusion level giving the best growth response, probably because the pigs, duration and diets differed (Yu et al., 2019b; Zhu et al., 2022).

Health and physiology

The health data are mostly neutral or favourable, and the most consistent benefits concern intestinal morphology, barrier function, microbiota, immune modulation and antioxidant status, especially under challenge conditions.

In healthy weaned pigs, partially defatted BSFL meal at 5% or 10% did not affect nutrient digestibility, gut morphology or histopathological findings, and did not materially change the blood profile except for monocyte and neutrophil responses (Biasato et al., 2019). Full-fat BSFL meal replacing 25% or 50% of animal protein sources did not change organ weights, jejunal or ileal villus height or crypt depth, ovalbumin-specific immunoglobulin G, immunoglobulin G1 or haptoglobin (Crosbie et al., 2021). BSFL oil blends did not disrupt the normal age-related development of the faecal microbiome in post-weaning pigs, as microbiome clusters were associated with age rather than dietary oil source (Buffoni et al., 2025).

Under sanitary or pathogenic challenge, the responses were stronger. In weaned pigs challenged with ETEC K88, 4% and 8% BSFL increased Lactobacillus and reduced Streptococcus, reduced diarrhoea, improved ileal villus integrity, increased IL-10 and tight-junction proteins such as occludin and claudin-3, and decreased TNF-alpha expression; the authors proposed 4% as the optimal replacement level (Jin et al., 2021). Complete replacement of fishmeal by BSFL meal in an ETEC K88 environment increased claudin-1, occludin, mucin-1, mucin-2, goblet cell number and secretory immunoglobulin A, reduced pro-inflammatory signalling, increased antimicrobial peptide expression and favoured beneficial colonic microbiota and short-chain fatty acid production (Tang et al., 2022).

Full-fat BSFL also showed antibiotic-replacement potential in weaned pigs. Under poor sanitary conditions, 6% or 12% full-fat BSFL improved nutrient digestibility, reduced diarrhoea, increased immunoglobulin A and glutathione peroxidase, reduced tumour necrosis factor-alpha, improved duodenal villus height and villus-to-crypt ratio, increased caecal Lactobacillus spp., and reduced caecal Escherichia coli at 12% inclusion (Boontiam et al., 2022). In a related trial, 12% BSFL with or without multi-probiotics increased dry matter, crude protein and ether extract digestibility, increased serum immunoglobulin A and glutathione peroxidase, reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines, improved duodenal villus height and villus-to-crypt ratio, and the BSFL plus probiotic treatment increased faecal Lactobacillus spp. and reduced faecal Escherichia coli (Phaengphairee et al., 2023).

In finishing pigs, 4% BSFL increased Lactobacillus, Pseudobutyrivibrio, Roseburia and Faecalibacterium in the colon, reduced Streptococcus, increased total short-chain fatty acids and butyrate, reduced several protein-fermentation metabolites, down-regulated TLR-4 and IFN-gamma, and up-regulated IL-10, ZO-1, occludin and mucin-1; 8% BSFL gave fewer positive responses but increased butyrate and ZO-1 (Yu et al., 2019a). In weanling piglets, 2% full-fat BSFL meal increased serum total protein, globulin, immunoglobulin A and IL-10, reduced urea, triglyceride and IFN-gamma, and increased jejunal villus height, while 4% depressed crude protein and crude fat digestibility (Yu et al., 2020). When BSFL replaced plasma protein, 25% replacement gave the highest IgG value at four weeks, but IgG and albumin declined when the BSFL replacement level increased and diarrhoea incidence was unchanged (Noh et al., 2026).

Behaviour

Direct behavioural evidence remains almost absent; the available information concerns palatability, feed intake and practical acceptance rather than specific behaviours. In an early choice test, pigs did not discriminate against a diet containing dried BSFL meal, and intake of the BSFL meal diet was similar to that of a soybean meal diet with added fat and greater than that of a soybean meal diet without added fat (Newton et al., 1977). Increased feed intake observed with 10% partially defatted BSFL meal during the second phase of a weaned-pig trial and the normal feed intake in several more recent trials suggest good acceptance of the ingredient, but activity, aggression, rooting, exploration and other welfare-related behaviours were not measured (Biasato et al., 2019; Crosbie et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2020; Buffoni et al., 2025).

Gass emissions

In growing-finishing pigs, replacing 1% fishmeal with 1% or 2% BSFL powder did not affect faecal emissions of hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, acetic acid or methyl mercaptans during the experimental period (Chang et al., 2025).

Poultry 

Broilers

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) products can be useful ingredients for broiler diets, provided their composition is known and diets are balanced on metabolisable energy and digestible amino acids rather than on crude protein alone (De Marco et al., 2015; Schiavone et al., 2017a; Mwaniki et al., 2018; Mahmoud et al., 2025). BSFL meal supplies protein, energy and minerals, whereas BSFL fat and oil supply medium-chain fatty acids, especially lauric acid, with effects on gut function and tissue fatty acid composition (Schiavone et al., 2017b; Kim et al., 2020; Dabbou et al., 2021). Feeding results are generally favourable when the product is of good quality and diets are adequately formulated. However, excessive use of full-fat meal, especially as a high replacement for soybean meal, can reduce feed intake, growth rate, carcase quality or immune responses, and can reduce the nutritional value of meat lipids by increasing saturated fatty acids at the expense of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Murawska et al., 2021; Daszkiewicz et al., 2022; Tykałowski et al., 2023). Live or whole larvae have an additional value as edible enrichment, but they should not be assumed to have the same effects as processed meal or fat (Seyedalmoosavi et al., 2022; Dörper et al., 2026).

Nutritional value and digestibility

The main nutritional value of BSFL products for broilers is their supply of apparent metabolisable energy (AME), nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolisable energy (AMEn) and digestible amino acids, but these values are variable and should be measured for each product.

Full-fat BSFL meal had a high AMEn value of 16.60 MJ/kg dry matter (DM) and very high ether extract digestibility, but its average apparent ileal digestibility coefficient (AIDC) for amino acids was lower than that of Tenebrio molitor meal in the same assay, especially for lysine and methionine (De Marco et al., 2015). Defatted BSFL meals also provided valuable metabolisable energy and digestible amino acids. The partially defatted meal had higher AME and AMEn values than the highly defatted meal, while mean amino acid AIDC was similar between the two products (Schiavone et al., 2017a). A defatted BSFL meal tested in young broilers had an AMEn of 12.15 MJ/kg DM and high standardised ileal digestibility (SID) for most indispensable amino acids, with methionine and cysteine among the amino acids requiring attention in practical formulation (Mwaniki et al., 2018).

Black soldier fly pre-pupae meal also compared favourably with soybean meal for digestible amino acids and had high AME and AMEn values, supporting its use as both a protein and energy source in broiler diets (Mahmoud et al., 2025). Calcium sources used during larvae rearing did not materially change nutrient or amino acid digestibility in a precision-fed cecectomised rooster assay, although sulphur and aromatic amino acids were often first limiting in protein-quality calculations (Do et al., 2021).

Performance

Performance responses are mostly neutral or positive when BSFL products are included at moderate levels in balanced diets, but the response is sensitive to inclusion level, product form, diet formulation and batch quality.

Partially defatted BSFL meal at 5, 10 or 15% in Ross 308 broilers improved live weight and feed intake during the starter period, with the best response around 10%, but 15% impaired the feed conversion ratio (FCR) in the grower and finisher periods (Dabbou et al., 2018). The companion meat-quality study found the best live and carcase weights at 10%, while 15% gave less favourable slaughter results (Schiavone et al., 2019). In another Ross 308 study in which diets were formulated on digestible amino acids, full-fat BSFL inclusion up to 20% increased body weight gain and reduced FCR by about 10% over 2 to 42 d (de Souza Vilela et al., 2021). In heat-stressed broilers, 5 or 10% BSFL meal did not change feed intake, weight gain, FCR or mortality, while the heat challenge itself depressed performance (Mazlan et al., 2024). A feeding programme using 5% BSFL meal in the starter diet and 10% in the grower diet, followed by a BSFL-free finisher diet, did not change overall growth performance and mortality, although body weight was slightly higher in the second week (Saidani et al., 2025).

BSFL fat has generally been a satisfactory replacement for conventional dietary oils. Partial or total replacement of soybean oil by BSFL fat did not affect growth, feed-choice results or slaughter performance in a 35-d trial (Schiavone et al., 2017b), and similar replacement in the finisher diet had no adverse effect on growth performance, carcase traits, blood parameters or gut morphology (Schiavone et al., 2018). BSFL oil at 5% improved FCR compared with corn oil without affecting body weight gain or feed intake, while BSFL larvae fat and modified BSFL larvae fat did not significantly affect growth or slaughter performance in another study (Kim et al., 2020; Dabbou et al., 2021).

Results with full-fat BSFL meal used as a high replacement for soybean meal are less favourable. In Ross 308 broilers, replacing 50, 75 or 100% of soybean meal protein with full-fat BSFL meal reduced live body weight and feed intake, and 100% replacement worsened the FCR over the whole trial (Murawska et al., 2021). A related health study with the same replacement levels also found decreasing body weight with increasing full-fat BSFL meal, together with high culling and mortality in the 100% replacement group (Tykałowski et al., 2023). In organic slow-growing broilers, soybean cake and oil could be replaced by BSFL meal and fat without major loss of performance when the BSFL material was of good quality, but a second BSFL source resulted in poorer performance, mainly because of lower feed intake (Heuel et al., 2022). In slow-growing Silkie crossbreed chickens, 15% partially defatted BSFL meal was associated with higher average daily gain (ADG) and numerically better final live weight and FCR (Li et al., 2026).

Whole larvae are well accepted by broilers. Feeding whole BSFL at 10, 20 or 30% of the voluntary feed intake of control birds did not adversely affect growth in the main analysis, but 30% reduced total dry matter and metabolisable energy intake and was associated with lower protein utilisation efficiency; the authors therefore considered inclusion up to 20% safer for growth performance and nutrient conversion (Seyedalmoosavi et al., 2022).

Product quality

Meat and carcase effects are usually limited at moderate inclusion rates, but BSFL fat is readily reflected in adipose and muscle fatty acid composition.

Black soldier fly pre-pupae meal included at 5, 10 or 15% did not affect carcase characteristics, pH, colour, thaw loss, cooking loss, mineral composition, long-chain fatty acid composition or sensory traits of breast meat (Pieterse et al., 2019). The starter-grower use of 5 and 10% BSFL meal increased hot eviscerated carcase yield without changing breast or thigh yields and did not affect most meat-quality traits or meat bacterial counts; the only early colour changes reported were higher breast redness and lower thigh yellowness 1 h post mortem (Saidani et al., 2025). Defatted BSFL meal at up to 10% improved slaughtering performance without detrimental effects on breast meat quality or heavy-metal residues, whereas 15% reduced live and carcase weight; however, increasing inclusion shifted the breast lipid profile by increasing monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and reducing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (Schiavone et al., 2019).

BSFL fat or oil did not usually change basic meat quality, but it changed lipid composition. Replacing soybean oil by BSFL fat did not affect carcase traits, breast meat proximate composition, pH, colour, thawing loss or drip loss, but the proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) in breast meat increased and PUFA decreased as BSFL fat increased (Schiavone et al., 2017b). BSFL oil did not change breast or thigh yield and did not affect thigh meat traits, but it increased breast meat yellowness and incorporated more saturated and medium-chain fatty acids, notably lauric and myristic acids, into abdominal fat (Kim et al., 2020). BSFL larvae fat and modified BSFL larvae fat did not influence slaughter performance, pH, colour or most chemical traits of breast and thigh meat, although one modified fat reduced breast meat lipid concentration (Dabbou et al., 2021).

High dietary use of full-fat BSFL meal can have more visible effects on carcase composition and sensory quality. In diets replacing 50, 75 or 100% of soybean meal protein, carcases contained less meat and more abdominal fat, and the meat from the 75 and 100% replacement groups had lower juiciness and taste intensity (Murawska et al., 2021). In a companion analysis, replacement of soybean meal at the same high levels increased total pigments in breast muscle and shifted the fatty acid profile towards higher SFA and lower PUFA, leading the authors to consider those inclusion rates too high for the nutritional value of meat fat (Daszkiewicz et al., 2022). Organic slow-growing broilers showed only small physicochemical meat-quality changes, but BSFL-based diets greatly increased lauric acid in breast meat lipids and reduced the relative contribution of PUFA (Heuel et al., 2022).

Health and physiology

BSFL products do not usually disturb standard blood, organ or histological indicators at moderate inclusion levels, but they can change gut morphology, microbiota, antioxidant status, stress biomarkers and immune markers.

Partially defatted BSFL meal did not affect most haematological and serum biochemical parameters, but serum phosphorus and blood glutathione peroxidase activity responded to inclusion level, and the 15% diet reduced villus height and the villus height-to-crypt depth ratio (Dabbou et al., 2018). Full-fat BSFL inclusion up to 20% reduced white blood cell and lymphocyte counts and reduced intestinal T lymphocyte populations, a response interpreted as a possible reduction in immune-system energy expenditure rather than an adverse health effect (de Souza Vilela et al., 2021). In Silkie crossbreed chickens, 15% BSFL meal modified serum lipid-, amino acid-, energy- and microbe-related metabolites and was associated with reduced serum D-lactate, but the metabolomics data alone cannot prove the mechanisms involved (Li et al., 2026).

BSFL fat and oil also showed physiological effects without major clinical disturbance. BSFL oil altered short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production and increased serum total antioxidant capacity, but did not affect liver-function markers or Clostridium perfringens counts (Kim et al., 2020). BSFL larvae fat and modified BSFL larvae fat did not affect blood traits, gut morphometry or histopathology, but modified fats reduced Clostridium and Corynebacterium in faecal microbiota (Dabbou et al., 2021). Partial or total replacement of soybean oil by BSFL fat in the finisher diet had no beneficial effect on gut health but also no adverse effect on haematological parameters, serum biochemical indices, intestinal morphology or histological features (Schiavone et al., 2018).

Several recent studies point to a gut-health or stress-tolerance effect of BSFL meal. In heat-stressed broilers, 5 and 10% BSFL meal prevented the corticosterone (CORT) increase seen in heated control birds, while heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) was increased by heat exposure but not by diet. D-lactic acid (DLA) and diamine oxidase (DAO) responses were mainly linked to heat and intestinal barrier status, while heat-stressed birds receiving 5 or 10% BSFL meal had lower caecal Escherichia coli and Clostridium spp.; 10% BSFL meal also increased caecal Lactobacillus spp. counts (Mazlan et al., 2024). The use of 5% BSFL meal in starter diets and 10% in grower diets also reduced caecal Enterobacteriaceae and increased Lactobacillus spp. without changing most meat microbiological parameters (Saidani et al., 2025).

The unfavourable results observed with high full-fat meal replacement show that BSFL meal is not automatically safe at any level. Replacing 50, 75 or 100% of soybean meal protein with full-fat BSFL meal did not affect haematological markers, but it changed serum calcium, phosphorus, uric acid and enzyme activities, shifted T-cell subpopulations and lowered post-vaccination anti-infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) antibody titres; the authors considered lower than 50% protein substitution to be more appropriate (Tykałowski et al., 2023). Whole BSFL up to 30% of voluntary feed intake did not change plasma albumin, globulin, total protein, immunoglobulin Y or immunoglobulin M, but 30% increased plasma uric acid and serum alkaline phosphatase, consistent with less efficient protein utilisation at the highest level (Seyedalmoosavi et al., 2022).

Behaviour

Behavioural effects are specific to live or whole larvae, because movement, presentation and palatability can act as edible enrichment; processed meal and fat do not appear to provide the same stimulus.

Feeding live BSFL to slow-growing broilers increased eating, locomotion and general activity and reduced resting compared with a control diet and diets containing processed BSFL meal, fat or both. Foraging was not increased in that study, probably because the larvae were offered in troughs rather than scattered into the litter; this indicates that product form and feeding method are central to welfare outcomes (Dörper et al., 2026).

Whole BSFL were highly attractive to Ross 308 broilers: birds consumed all larvae offered after a short learning period, and the ratio of larvae eating rate to regular feed eating rate indicated a strong preference for larvae over compound feed (Seyedalmoosavi et al., 2022). This supports the use of live or whole larvae as edible enrichment, but the high preference also means that ration design and the physical method of delivery must avoid excessive competition or displacement of the basal diet. In contrast, a feed-choice test comparing diets with or without BSFL fat found no preference, suggesting that the fat itself did not reduce palatability (Schiavone et al., 2017b).

Laying hens

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) products appear to be credible alternatives or supplements to soybean-derived ingredients in laying hen diets, particularly when diets are formulated to meet energy, amino acid and mineral requirements (Patterson et al., 2021; Romero et al., 2024; Veldkamp et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025). Moderate inclusion of BSFL meal, defatted or partially defatted meal, oil, or controlled live larvae generally maintained egg production, egg weight and most egg-quality traits, and several studies reported benefits for feed efficiency, laying rate, shell quality, antioxidant status, caecal microbial diversity or feather condition (Star et al., 2020; Patterson et al., 2021; Tahamtani et al., 2021; Yan et al., 2023; Veldkamp et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025). 

However, BSF products are not interchangeable: oil, full-fat meal, defatted meal, partially defatted meal and live larvae differ in protein, fat, amino acid profile, minerals, chitin and mode of intake (Patterson et al., 2021; Romero et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025). The main practical limits are poorer performance at very high meal inclusion when arginine and tryptophan became limiting, and excessive nutrient intake when hens had unrestricted access to live larvae (Patterson et al., 2021; Tahamtani et al., 2021).

Performance

At controlled inclusion rates, BSFL meal can maintain laying performance, and may improve feed efficiency or laying rate in some settings, but high inclusion without adequate amino acid balance and unrestricted access to live larvae can impair efficiency or increase body weight gain (Patterson et al., 2021; Tahamtani et al., 2021; Yan et al., 2023; Veldkamp et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2025).

In a 210-day study with Hy-Line Brown hens, diets containing 3, 6 or 9% defatted BSFL meal did not reduce egg production rate or average egg weight, but the 6 and 9% treatments increased feed-to-egg ratio during later periods, indicating less efficient conversion at higher inclusion (Chen et al., 2025). In young Brown Nick hens in aviary-like pens, 5% and 10% BSF meal maintained laying rate, egg weight, egg mass and body weight evolution, and the 10% diet improved feed efficiency through lower feed intake (Veldkamp et al., 2024). In 60-week-old Hy-Line Brown hens, 1, 2 and 3% BSFL meal increased laying rate linearly and reduced feed/egg ratio linearly, while average egg weight and average daily feed intake were not significantly changed (Yan et al., 2023).

BSFL oil at 1.5, 3.0 or 4.5% did not affect average daily feed intake, body weight, egg production, feed conversion ratio or egg weight; BSFL meal at 8 and 16% did not impair laying performance, whereas the 23.93% meal diet reduced feed intake, body weight and egg production, with arginine and tryptophan identified as likely limiting nutrients (Patterson et al., 2021). In free-range Bovans Brown hens, replacing soybean meal (SBM) partially or completely with 80 or 160 g/kg partially defatted BSFL meal did not affect laying rate, egg weight, egg mass, feed intake or feed conversion ratio over eight weeks (Romero et al., 2024). 

In older Dekalb White hens, gradual supply of live larvae at 12 g/hen/day on top of a soy-free diet maintained laying rate, egg weight and egg mass, while mash intake and calculated feed conversion ratio were reduced (Star et al., 2020). In individually housed Bovans White hens, live larvae supplied at 10 or 20% of expected dry matter intake did not affect egg production or egg weight, whereas unrestricted access caused high voluntary larvae intake, lower concentrate intake and greater body weight gain (Tahamtani et al., 2021).

Product quality

Egg quality was generally maintained when BSF products were used at controlled levels, but yolk colour and yolk nutrient composition were inconsistent responses because they depended on the product used, the basal diet and inclusion rate (Patterson et al., 2021; Romero et al., 2024; Veldkamp et al., 2024).

Defatted BSFL meal improved eggshell strength at 6% inclusion and eggshell thickness at 3% inclusion, while average egg weight was maintained across 3, 6 and 9% inclusion rates (Chen et al., 2025). BSFL oil increased yolk colour without impairing egg weight, and BSFL meal also increased yolk colour while the highest meal treatment increased egg specific gravity (Patterson et al., 2021).

In free-range hens, partially defatted BSFL meal did not affect shell thickness, shell proportion, yolk fat, yolk crude protein, cholesterol, choline, B vitamins or cholecalciferol, but it reduced yolk colour score and albumen Haugh units. BSF meal increased yolk alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, total carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin, but reduced yolk retinol, zinc, polyunsaturated fatty acids and omega-3 fatty acids (Romero et al., 2024). BSFL meal at 5 or 10% maintained chemical and physical egg quality, increased yolk colour at week 8, and did not reduce overall consumer liking of eggs (Veldkamp et al., 2024). BSFL meal supplementation reduced cracked-egg rate linearly as inclusion increased from 1 to 3%, which is a positive product-quality outcome in late-lay hens (Yan et al., 2023).

Live larvae supplied with a soy-free diet did not impair the measured egg quality traits in older hens, supporting the feasibility of live larvae as part of a soy-free feeding strategy when the basal diet is balanced (Star et al., 2020). Live larvae supplied at 10 or 20% of expected dry matter intake did not affect shell thickness, shell breaking strength or Haugh units, but unrestricted access was associated with paler yolks as the laying period progressed (Tahamtani et al., 2021).

Health, antioxidant status and gut response

The health evidence is narrower than the performance evidence, but the available research (at the time of writing) does not indicate adverse gut or serum effects and suggests possible benefits for antioxidant status and caecal microbial diversity (Chen et al., 2025; Yan et al., 2023).

Defatted BSFL meal at 3, 6 or 9% did not alter serum biochemical indices or jejunal and ileal morphology in a long laying-hen trial. The 3% defatted BSFL meal treatment improved total antioxidant capacity and lowered malondialdehyde, while the 6% treatment increased glutathione peroxidase activity, indicating a favourable antioxidant response at moderate inclusion rates. The 3% treatment also had higher gonadotropin-releasing hormone than the 9% treatment, but the study did not show a corresponding increase in egg production rate (Chen et al., 2025). BSFL meal supplementation at 1, 2 or 3% increased caecal microbial richness and diversity in late-lay hens, decreasing the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes while increasing that of Firmicutes, with no adverse effect on the dominant intestinal flora (Yan et al., 2023).

Live larvae at controlled levels did not cause reported adverse health effects, but unrestricted access increased body weight, abdominal fat and proventriculus weight, showing that voluntary overconsumption can alter body composition and organ weights (Tahamtani et al., 2021).

Behaviour

Behavioural evidence was limited to live-larvae studies, but controlled live-larvae supply appeared useful as enrichment and may improve feather condition without increasing fearfulness in the tests used. The behavioural value of BSF is mainly supported for live larvae rather than processed meal, because the processed-meal studies supplied measured nutrition and product-quality responses rather than foraging or welfare responses (Star et al., 2020; Tahamtani et al., 2021).

Live larvae supplied to older non-beak-trimmed hens improved feather condition at the end of the trial, which suggests a welfare benefit in a group-housed aviary context. Live larvae provision changed the number of hens observed on the floor during morning and afternoon periods, indicating that larvae delivery influenced space use or activity patterns (Star et al., 2020). Live larvae supplied at 10%, 20% or unrestricted access did not affect responses to a novel-object test or an open-field test, indicating no treatment effect on the fearfulness measures used in individually housed hens (Tahamtani et al., 2021).

Broiler quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

Defatted BSFL meal can be used at 10-15% in diets for growing broiler quails as a partial substitute for soya bean meal and soya bean oil without impairing growth, mortality, carcass yield, breast yield or sensory acceptance, and the main limitation observed was a less favourable breast meat fatty acid profile at the highest inclusion levels (Cullere et al., 2016; Cullere et al., 2018).

Performance

In 450 quails from 10 to 28 days of age, diets containing 10 or 15% defatted BSFL meal partially replaced soya bean meal and soya bean oil; the 15% diet replaced all soya bean oil and about one-quarter of soya bean meal. Slaughter weight, body weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and mortality were not affected, indicating that performance was maintained under the tested conditions (Cullere et al., 2016).

Digestibility and nutrient utilisation

Apparent digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, starch and energy was similar among treatments, as was dietary metabolisable energy. Ether extract digestibility was lower only in the 10% BSFL meal diet, suggesting no general impairment of nutrient utilisation but a possible sensitivity of fat digestion to diet composition (Cullere et al., 2016).

Product quality

Carcass weight, dressing percentage, breast weight and breast yield were not affected by 10 or 15% defatted BSFL meal (Cullere et al., 2016). Breast ultimate pH was lower in insect-fed birds but remained within the normal range; the 15% diet increased cooking loss and shear force, whereas proximate composition, cholesterol and lipid oxidation, measured as thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) and malondialdehyde (MDA), were unchanged (Cullere et al., 2016; Cullere et al., 2018).

Defatted BSFL meal modified some mineral, amino acid and fatty acid traits. Meat calcium increased, potassium decreased, and the 15% diet increased several amino acids, but saturated fatty acids (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) increased while polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), particularly n-3 PUFA, decreased. Odour, flavour and texture were not significantly altered, and off-odour and off-flavour scores remained low (Cullere et al., 2018).

Health and physiology

Excreta counts for total viable bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, coliforms, clostridia, lactobacilli and Bacillus spp. were not altered by BSFL meal (Cullere et al., 2016). Meat oxidative status was also unchanged after storage, and no intestinal morphology or systemic health measurements were reported, so conclusions on quail gut physiology remain limited (Cullere et al., 2016; Cullere et al., 2018).

Behaviour

In a feed-choice test between the control diet and the 15% BSFL meal diet, quails showed no significant preference, indicating that palatability was not limiting (Cullere et al., 2016). No other behavioural outcomes were recorded (Cullere et al., 2016; Cullere et al., 2018).

Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo)

BSFL meal appears valuable for turkeys both as a full-fat protein and energy ingredient in young poults and as defatted meal in grower-finisher diets; the available studies reported improved feed efficiency or growth and mostly limited effects on meat quality, with gut fermentation and metabolomic changes being the main physiological responses (Jankowski et al., 2021; Zampiga et al., 2025).

Performance

Full-fat BSFL meal was fed to 432 one-day-old male Hybrid Converter turkeys for four weeks at 50, 100 or 150 g/kg, replacing part of the soya bean meal and most soya bean oil at the highest level while maintaining calculated energy and amino acid supply. Feed intake and losses were unchanged, final body weight (BW) and gain tended to increase, and FCR improved linearly up to 150 g/kg (Jankowski et al., 2021).

In 1512 female B.U.T. 6 turkeys, 5% defatted BSFL meal from 65 to 105 days improved final BW, daily weight gain and FCR over the whole rearing cycle when diets were formulated to be isoenergetic and similar in digestible amino acid profile. Mortality was very low and carcass, breast and thigh yields were not impaired (Zampiga et al., 2025).

Product quality

In grower-finisher turkeys, 5% defatted BSFL meal did not affect breast proximate composition, ultimate pH, drip loss, cooking loss or shear force, and only slightly reduced meat yellowness, probably because the insect diet contained less maize (Zampiga et al., 2025).

Health and physiology

In young poults, full-fat BSFL meal increased dry matter concentration and viscosity of small intestinal contents without compromising intestinal development. The highest inclusion increased immunoglobulin Y (IgY), lowered tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), and increased interleukin 2 (IL-2), while caecal microbial enzyme activities and butyric acid also increased, suggesting favourable modulation of intestinal immune status and fermentation (Jankowski et al., 2021).

In grower-finisher turkeys, 5% defatted BSFL meal caused little change in caecal microbiota diversity or dominant phyla, but proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) metabolomics detected lower tyramine, higher glucose and malonate, and tendencies for higher betaine, isoleucine and butyrate (Zampiga et al., 2025). The turkey studies therefore suggest that BSFL meal affects caecal fermentation and metabolite availability more clearly than broad microbiota composition (Jankowski et al., 2021; Zampiga et al., 2025).

Behaviour

The turkey studies did not include direct behavioural observations, but feed intake did not indicate rejection of BSFL meal: intake was unchanged in poults up to 150 g/kg full-fat meal, and grower-finisher females fed 5% defatted meal had similar overall intake (Jankowski et al., 2021; Zampiga et al., 2025).

Fish 

Across fish species, BSFL products are more suitable as components of balanced feeds than as sole fresh feed, and the appropriate inclusion level depends on species, processing, defatting, diet formulation and the endpoint considered (Bondari et al., 1987; Caimi et al., 2020; Carral et al., 2022; Kroeckel et al., 2012; Li et al., 2017). Moderate inclusion of BSFL meal or BSFL oil often maintained growth and feed utilisation, whereas high full-fat meal inclusion, high replacement of FM protein or unbalanced use of fresh larvae caused reduced growth, poorer digestibility, lower palatability or changes in liver, gut and antioxidant indicators (Cardinaletti et al., 2019; Fawole et al., 2021; Fisher et al., 2020; Kousoulaki et al., 2022).

In feeding trials using BSFL meal and BSFL oil in fish diets, responses depended on product form, processing, formulation and species: fresh larvae used as the sole feed often limited dry matter and protein intake, while dried meals or oil were more useful when included in balanced diets (Bondari et al., 1987; Fawole et al., 2021; Kroeckel et al., 2012). BSFL meals were generally tested as replacements for fish meal (FM) or conventional protein ingredients, whereas BSFL oil was tested as a replacement for fish oil (FO) or soybean oil. Moderate inclusion levels often maintained growth and feed utilisation, but high inclusion sometimes reduced palatability, digestibility, growth or indices of liver and gut status (Cardinaletti et al., 2019; Caimi et al., 2020; Fisher et al., 2020; Kroeckel et al., 2012).

Salmonids (Atlantic salmon Salmo salar; Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss)

In salmonids, BSFL meal and BSFL oil can be used in well-formulated feeds, but high meal inclusion or inadequate lipid and amino acid adjustment can reduce performance or product quality (St-Hilaire et al., 2007a; Sealey et al., 2011; Renna et al., 2017; Cardinaletti et al., 2019; Fisher et al., 2020; Fawole et al., 2021; Kousoulaki et al., 2022).

Performance

Moderate inclusion of BSFL meal or BSFL oil usually maintained salmonid growth, whereas high full-fat meal inclusion or the bile-acid supplemented BSFL oil diet gave less favourable results (St-Hilaire et al., 2007a; Cardinaletti et al., 2019; Fawole et al., 2021).

In rainbow trout, BSFL prepupae meal supplying 15% of dietary protein, equivalent to 25% replacement of the FM component, did not adversely affect feed conversion ratio (FCR), but 50% replacement increased FCR and reduced weight gain (St-Hilaire et al., 2007a). When BSFL prepupae were enriched on trout offal, diets replacing 25% or 50% of the FM component gave growth not significantly different from the FM control, whereas non-enriched BSFL diets reduced growth (Sealey et al., 2011).

Partially defatted BSFL meal replacing 25% or 50% of FM, corresponding to 20% or 40% dietary inclusion, did not affect survival, growth performance, condition factor or somatic indexes in rainbow trout (Renna et al., 2017). Full-fat BSFL prepupae meal replacing 25% or 50% of conventional ingredients did not reduce growth over 98 days, but the 50% replacement level produced clearer physiological signs of adaptation (Cardinaletti et al., 2019).

In Atlantic salmon, low-FM diets containing 10%, 20% or 30% BSFL meal produced similar final weights, thermal growth coefficients and FCR values to the non-BSFL low-FM control (Fisher et al., 2020). In another Atlantic salmon trial using low trophic ingredients, a 20% BSFL meal diet was well accepted and gave high growth and feed efficiency, but final weight remained below that obtained with the FM and FO control (Kousoulaki et al., 2022). BSFL oil fully replacing FO or soybean oil in juvenile rainbow trout did not reduce growth, whereas adding 1.5% bile acid to the BSFL oil diet resulted in the lowest growth (Fawole et al., 2021).

Digestibility and feed utilisation

The nutritive value of BSFL meal in salmonids was acceptable, but not identical to FM, and digestibility was affected by product form and inclusion level (Renna et al., 2017; Fisher et al., 2020). In rainbow trout, apparent digestibility coefficients (ADC) for ether extract and gross energy did not differ among diets containing partially defatted BSFL meal, but ADC for dry matter and crude protein was higher at 20% than at 40% dietary inclusion (Renna et al., 2017). In Atlantic salmon, BSFL meal had higher dry matter and gross energy digestibility than corn protein concentrate, but lower protein digestibility and lower digestible protein than FM (Fisher et al., 2020).

Product quality

The major product-quality issue in salmonids is the fatty acid profile rather than gross fillet composition or sensory acceptability (St-Hilaire et al., 2007a; Sealey et al., 2011; Renna et al., 2017; Fawole et al., 2021).

Rainbow trout fed BSFL diets low in fish oil had lower omega-3 fatty acids in muscle fillets, and the authors suggested that enriching BSFL on substrates containing fish offal could help correct this limitation (St-Hilaire et al., 2007a). The enrichment approach was supported by a substrate trial in which fish offal increased BSFL lipid content and allowed alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) to be incorporated into prepupae within 24 h (St-Hilaire et al., 2007b).

In the sensory trial, BSFL-fed trout had altered muscle lipid and fatty acid composition, including more lauric acid, but 30 untrained panellists did not detect significant differences between trout fed FM and trout fed normal or enriched BSFL prepupae diets (Sealey et al., 2011). Partially defatted BSFL meal increased dry matter and ether extract in dorsal fillet at 40% inclusion and reduced valuable polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly at the highest inclusion level (Renna et al., 2017).

BSFL oil replacing FO or soybean oil in rainbow trout did not affect whole-body protein, lipid or ash, but it increased 14:0, 16:0 and total saturated fatty acids in muscle and liver; muscle EPA plus DHA did not differ among oil sources, although the FO diet gave the highest EPA:DHA and n-3:n-6 ratios (Fawole et al., 2021). In Atlantic salmon fed a 20% BSFL meal diet, fillets had lower protein, lower zinc and the lowest EPA plus DHA among the FM and FO control and single-ingredient test diets (Kousoulaki et al., 2022).

Health and physiology

Moderate BSFL use was generally compatible with normal salmonid health indicators, but high full-fat meal inclusion or specific oil formulations altered stress, immune, hepatic or antioxidant markers (Cardinaletti et al., 2019; Fawole et al., 2021; Kousoulaki et al., 2022).

Rainbow trout fed 50% replacement of conventional ingredients with full-fat BSFL prepupae meal showed reduced intestinal villus length, increased hepatic lipid deposition and up-regulation of genes related to stress and immune response, while 25% replacement caused milder intestinal immune responses (Cardinaletti et al., 2019). Partially defatted BSFL meal did not alter intestinal villus height in rainbow trout, supporting the conclusion that product processing and lipid content are important determinants of health response (Renna et al., 2017).

In the BSFL oil trial, oil source changed hepatic genes related to fatty acid metabolism, and the bile-acid supplemented BSFL oil diet increased superoxide dismutase and catalase activities (Fawole et al., 2021). Atlantic salmon fed a BSFL meal diet had normal gut health and normal metabolic responses in the low trophic ingredient trial, although growth remained below the FM and FO control (Kousoulaki et al., 2022).

Behaviour and palatability

Salmonids generally accepted BSFL products when they were incorporated into complete feeds, but acceptance alone did not guarantee equivalent growth (Fisher et al., 2020; Kousoulaki et al., 2022; Sealey et al., 2011). Feed intake did not differ among Atlantic salmon diets containing up to 30% BSFL meal in low-FM formulations (Fisher et al., 2020). In the enriched prepupae trout trial, feed consumption was not significantly affected by BSFL inclusion, showing that the lower growth of non-enriched BSFL groups was more likely related to nutrient availability or utilisation than to refusal of the feed (Sealey et al., 2011).

Catfish (Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus; African catfish Clarias gariepinus; yellow catfish or Korean bullehead Tachysurus sinensis / Pelteobagrus fulvidraco)

In catfish, BSFL products gave useful results when included in formulated diets, while fresh larvae used alone were less reliable because they did not provide enough dry matter and protein intake for good growth (Bondari et al., 1981; Bondari et al., 1987; Xiao et al., 2018; Hervé et al., 2025).

Performance

Formulated catfish diets containing BSFL meal were more consistent than whole fresh larvae, and the best inclusion level depended on species and replacement target (Bondari et al., 1987; Xiao et al., 2018; Hervé et al., 2025).

In channel catfish, chopped BSFL grown on hen manure, fed alone or combined with commercial diets for 10 weeks, gave body weight and length responses similar to commercial diets in an early mixed-species trial (Bondari et al., 1981). In a later channel catfish trial, replacing the 10% FM component with 10% dried soldier fly larvae slowed growth in cages over 15 weeks, but the same replacement did not significantly reduce growth in culture tanks where growth was slower (Bondari et al., 1987).

Whole or chopped fresh larvae used as the only feed did not provide sufficient dry matter or protein intake for good growth of channel catfish, although chopping improved weight gain and utilisation compared with whole larvae (Bondari et al., 1987). In yellow catfish, replacing 13-48% of FM protein with BSFL meal protein improved growth indices compared with the control, with the best results at 25% replacement; growth and feed conversion declined when replacement exceeded 48% (Xiao et al., 2018).

In African catfish, diets in which BSFL meal replaced 50%, 75% or 100% of FM, equivalent to approximately 13%, 19% and 26% BSFL meal in the diet, improved growth rate, FCR and survival compared with the local FM diet at the two highest replacement levels; the commercial imported diet still gave the highest final weight and specific growth rate (SGR) (Hervé et al., 2025).

Product quality

BSFL products did not impair catfish acceptability in the studies where product quality was tested (Bondari et al., 1981; Bondari et al., 1987; Hervé et al., 2025). In channel catfish, taste panels found no significant diet effect on aroma or texture when fish had received larvae-based diets (Bondari et al., 1981; Bondari et al., 1987). In African catfish, consumer acceptance remained positive when FM was replaced by BSFL meal, and the study reported improvements in flesh quality traits together with growth responses (Hervé et al., 2025).

Health and physiology

Catfish health responses were mostly neutral or favourable in formulated BSFL meal diets, but the endpoints differed among studies (Bondari et al., 1987; Xiao et al., 2018; Hervé et al., 2025). In yellow catfish, survival rate, body indexes and body composition were not significantly affected by BSFL meal protein, while immune indicators improved at 13-48% FM protein replacement and were highest at 25% replacement (Xiao et al., 2018). In African catfish, survival improved at high BSFL meal replacement and there was no indication that BSFL meal impaired gross health under the tested conditions (Hervé et al., 2025).

Behaviour and palatability

Physical presentation affected feeding behaviour in the early catfish trials (Bondari et al., 1981; Bondari et al., 1987). Channel catfish initially refused whole larvae but fed more readily when the larvae were chopped, and chopping improved utilisation of fresh larvae compared with whole larvae (Bondari et al., 1987). This result supports the use of processed meal or chopped material rather than intact larvae when BSFL are offered to catfish (Bondari et al., 1987).

Economics and sustainability

Replacing FM with BSFL meal improved economic and sustainability indicators in African catfish under the conditions tested. The 75% and 100% FM replacement diets had lower feed costs and higher profitability than the local FM diet, and the fish-in-fish-out ratio declined as FM was replaced by BSFL meal (Hervé et al., 2025).

Tilapias (Blue tilapia Oreochromis aureus; Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus)

Tilapias are among the most favourable fish groups for BSFL meal, with several trials showing maintained or improved performance when BSFL meal was used in balanced diets, while whole fresh larvae alone were less satisfactory (Bondari et al., 1981; Bondari et al., 1987; Devic et al., 2018; Tippayadara et al., 2021; Limbu et al., 2022; Shati et al., 2022; Maulu et al., 2025).

Performance

Balanced diets containing BSFL meal maintained or improved Nile tilapia growth over a wide range of replacement strategies (Devic et al., 2018; Tippayadara et al., 2021; Limbu et al., 2022; Shati et al., 2022; Maulu et al., 2025).

In Nile tilapia fingerlings reared in lake cages in Ghana, diets containing 3%, 5% or 8% BSFL meal, with poultry by-product meal replacing part of fish meal, fish oil and soybean meal, did not significantly change final weight, weight gain, SGR, FCR, protein efficiency ratio or feed intake compared with the commercial-type control (Devic et al., 2018).

In Nile tilapia, replacing FM with BSFL meal at 10-100% did not significantly affect growth indices, feed utilisation, feed intake or survival, and apparent protein digestibility was higher in BSFL meal diets than in the FM control, with the highest value at complete FM replacement (Tippayadara et al., 2021). In Nile tilapia fry, the 75% FM replacement diet increased SGR and total weight gain and reduced FCR, and polynomial analysis estimated the best BSFL inclusion for maximum growth at 81-84% of the FM replacement scale (Limbu et al., 2022).

In Nile tilapia juveniles, replacing SBM with BSFL meal at 50% or 100% gave the best growth and feed utilisation at complete replacement, with higher body weight gain and SGR, and a better FCR than the commercial diet (Shati et al., 2022). In another juvenile trial, diets containing 20% or 40% defatted BSFL meal improved final weight, weight gain, SGR, protein efficiency ratio and FCR compared with the control, with weight gain increasing by 31.9% and 45.5% at 20% and 40% inclusion, respectively (Maulu et al., 2025).

In blue tilapia, chopped BSFL grown on hen manure, used alone or in mixtures with commercial diets, gave similar body weight and length to commercial diets over 10 weeks in the early mixed-species trial, but 100% fresh larvae were not adequate in the later single-species trial (Bondari et al., 1981; Bondari et al., 1987).

Product quality

BSFL meal mainly affected fatty acid or mineral traits in tilapia rather than gross composition, and consumer acceptability was not clearly impaired in blue tilapia (Bondari et al., 1981; Devic et al., 2018; Shati et al., 2022; Maulu et al., 2025).

Low BSFL meal inclusion did not change dry matter, crude protein, lipid, ash or fibre in whole Nile tilapia, but fatty acid composition mirrored the fatty acid composition of the diets (Devic et al., 2018). In Nile tilapia juveniles, 40% defatted BSFL meal increased carcass ash content, which the authors related to the mineral contribution of the ingredient (Maulu et al., 2025). When BSFL meal replaced SBM, fish fed the complete SBM replacement diet had higher values for several essential amino acids in the fillet than fish fed the commercial diet, supporting the nutritional value of the product under those conditions (Shati et al., 2022). Taste testing in blue tilapia did not show significant negative effects of larvae feeding on consumer acceptability, although larvae-fed fish tended to receive slightly lower ranks than fish fed commercial diets (Bondari et al., 1981; Bondari et al., 1987).

Health and physiology

Health responses in tilapia were neutral or favourable, especially for gut structure and mucosal immunity (Tippayadara et al., 2021; Limbu et al., 2022; Maulu et al., 2025).

Replacing FM with BSFL meal up to 100% did not affect red blood cell, white blood cell, haemoglobin, haematocrit or platelet values, while skin mucus lysozyme and peroxidase activities were improved in BSFL-fed Nile tilapia (Tippayadara et al., 2021). In Nile tilapia fry, the 50% replacement diet increased hepatosomatic index, but the 75% replacement diet had no deleterious effect on liver and intestinal observations reported by the authors (Limbu et al., 2022). In Nile tilapia juveniles, 20% and 40% defatted BSFL meal increased mucosal fold length, muscularis thickness and goblet cell density in the posterior intestine, and 40% inclusion increased intraepithelial lymphocytes, microvilli length and expression of the peptide transporter Slc15a1a; cytokine gene expression in the posterior intestine and head kidney was not significantly affected (Maulu et al., 2025).

Behaviour and palatability

Tilapias accepted balanced BSFL meal pellets well, but the physical form of fresh larvae affected feeding behaviour (Bondari et al., 1981; Bondari et al., 1987; Devic et al., 2018; Maulu et al., 2025). In the mixed-species trial, tilapia were more aggressive feeders than channel catfish and consumed a larger share of the larvae-based feed, which complicated interpretation of the catfish response (Bondari et al., 1981). In pellet-fed Nile tilapia, feed intake was not depressed by 3-8% BSFL meal in the Ghana cage trial or by 20-40% defatted BSFL meal in the recirculating system trial (Devic et al., 2018; Maulu et al., 2025).

Economics and water quality

BSFL meal improved economic indicators in Nile tilapia trials where it replaced more expensive conventional ingredients (Limbu et al., 2022; Shati et al., 2022). In Nile tilapia fry, the 75% and 100% FM replacement diets reduced incidence cost by 31.97% and 28.77%, respectively, and increased profit index; the 75% replacement diet also reduced total suspended solids and increased nitrate in the rearing water (Limbu et al., 2022). In Nile tilapia juveniles, replacing SBM with BSFL meal at 50% or 100% reduced production cost compared with the soybean meal control and the commercial diet (Shati et al., 2022).

Cyprinids (Jian carp Cyprinus carpio var. Jian; Tench Tinca tinca)

Cyprinids responded well to defatted or partially defatted BSFL meal in balanced diets, but high replacement can still alter lipid composition and physiological markers (Li et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2018; Carral et al., 2022).

Performance

Jian carp and tench generally maintained growth when FM was partly or fully replaced by BSFL meal in balanced feeds (Li et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2018; Carral et al., 2022).

In Jian carp, defatted BSFL meal replacing 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% or 100% of FM protein, equivalent to 0%, 2.6%, 5.3%, 7.9% and 10.6% of the diet, did not affect final weight, SGR, FCR, feed intake, protein efficiency ratio, condition factor, hepatosomatic index, viscerosomatic index or relative gut length during a 59-day trial (Li et al., 2017). In another Jian carp trial, BSFL meal replacing FM at 3.5%, 7.0%, 10.5% and 14.0% of the diet, up to complete replacement of the FM in the basal diet, did not affect growth, biological parameters, proximate composition, amino acid composition or serum biochemical parameters (Zhou et al., 2018). In tench, partially defatted BSFL meal replacing 15%, 30%, 45%, 60% or 75% of FM maintained high survival and produced the best growth at 45% FM replacement, with regression analysis estimating the optimum at 47% FM replacement, corresponding to 35.6% BSFL meal in the diet (Carral et al., 2022).

Product quality

The main product-quality changes in cyprinids were reductions in body or liver lipid and shifts in fatty acid profile, not loss of protein deposition (Li et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2018; Carral et al., 2022). In Jian carp, hepatopancreas lipid and serum cholesterol were lower in BSFL meal groups, while moisture and protein contents of whole body, muscle and hepatopancreas were not significantly affected (Li et al., 2017). In the second Jian carp trial, 12:0, 14:0 and 16:0 increased and 18:1n-9, 18:2n-6, EPA and DHA decreased as BSFL meal replacement increased, showing that body fatty acids reflected the BSFL-based diets (Zhou et al., 2018). In tench, whole-body lipid decreased linearly with BSFL meal inclusion, while whole-body essential amino acid composition remained similar across diets (Carral et al., 2022).

Health and physiology

Cyprinid health data support moderate to high inclusion in balanced diets, but antioxidant and histological responses argue against ignoring species-specific limits (Li et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2018; Carral et al., 2022).

In Jian carp, digestive enzyme activities were not affected and superoxide dismutase and malondialdehyde remained unchanged, but catalase activity and hsp70 expression increased at higher FM protein replacement levels (Li et al., 2017). Intestinal and hepatopancreas histology was normal at 25% and 50% FM protein replacement, whereas tissue disruption was observed at 75% and 100% replacement (Li et al., 2017). In the second Jian carp trial, serum malondialdehyde and total antioxidant capacity decreased with increasing BSFL meal replacement, while other serum biochemical indexes were not significantly affected (Zhou et al., 2018). In tench, survival was 95.8-100% and externally visible deformities remained below 0.05%, with no diet effect on deformity rate (Carral et al., 2022).

Behaviour and palatability

Feed acceptance did not constrain the cyprinid trials when BSFL meal was incorporated into complete diets (Li et al., 2017; Carral et al., 2022). In Jian carp, feed intake was not significantly affected by defatted BSFL meal inclusion (Li et al., 2017). In tench, practical diets containing partially defatted BSFL meal were readily accepted across the tested replacement range (Carral et al., 2022).

Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii)

In Siberian sturgeon juveniles, highly defatted BSFL meal was tolerated at moderate inclusion, but high inclusion altered antioxidant responses and very high inclusion created acceptance problems (Caimi et al., 2020).

Performance

Moderate highly defatted BSFL meal inclusion was more suitable than high inclusion in Siberian sturgeon. Diets containing 18.5% or 37.5% highly defatted BSFL meal replaced 25% or 50% of FM, respectively, and the high inclusion diet reduced feed consumption and growth compared with the control; an even higher BSFL meal diet aimed at 75% FM replacement was discontinued because of poor acceptance and welfare concerns (Caimi et al., 2020).

Product quality

No product-quality conclusion should be drawn beyond the fact that the study did not report an edible-flesh quality assessment (Caimi et al., 2020).

Health and physiology

Liver and distal intestine histology were not impaired by the BSFL meal diets, but antioxidant biomarkers changed at the higher inclusion level. Villus height, goblet cells, liver structure and distal intestine morphology were not significantly affected, and malondialdehyde data did not indicate increased lipid peroxidation. At 37.5% BSFL meal inclusion, antioxidant enzyme responses in liver and kidney changed, leading the authors to recommend inclusion up to 18.5% to avoid unfavourable effects on health status (Caimi et al., 2020).

Behaviour and palatability

Diet acceptance was a practical limitation in Siberian sturgeon at very high BSFL meal inclusion. The diet designed to replace 75% of FM with highly defatted BSFL meal was withdrawn after the fish showed very low acceptance and associated welfare concerns (Caimi et al., 2020).

Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata)

In gilthead seabream, defatted BSFL pupae meal could replace part of vegetable protein in a complete diet without impairing growth or fillet quality (Pulido-Rodriguez et al., 2021).

Performance

Defatted BSFL pupae meal performed well as a partial replacement for vegetable proteins in gilthead seabream. Diets in which 10%, 20% or 40% of vegetable proteins were replaced with defatted BSFL pupae meal gave final weight, SGR and FCR values comparable with the vegetable control; the unfavourable growth and FCR response in the study occurred with the microalgae blend diet, not with the BSFL diets (Pulido-Rodriguez et al., 2021).

Product quality

BSFL pupae meal did not adversely affect marketable or chemical fillet traits in gilthead seabream. Fillet moisture, ash, crude protein and total lipids did not differ among diets, while fatty acid profile reflected dietary ingredients; BSFL meal increased fillet lauric acid as inclusion increased, but the overall nutritional quality of the fillets was maintained (Pulido-Rodriguez et al., 2021).

Health and physiology

The study did not identify detrimental physiological effects attributable to BSFL pupae meal in gilthead seabream. Appetite-related gene expression changes were mainly associated with the microalgae diet, which also had the worst feed conversion ratio, whereas the BSFL diets did not show the same adverse performance pattern (Pulido-Rodriguez et al., 2021).

Behaviour and palatability

Feed intake data did not suggest a palatability problem for the BSFL pupae meal diets. Feed intake in the BSFL meal groups was not higher than in the vegetable control, and the lowest FCR values were observed in diets including BSFL or other animal protein sources rather than in the microalgae diet (Pulido-Rodriguez et al., 2021).

European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax)

In European seabass reared in aquaponic systems, spirulina-enriched full-fat BSFL prepupae meal maintained growth and welfare at the tested replacement levels (Zarantoniello et al., 2023).

Performance

Low to moderate replacement of FM with enriched full-fat BSFL prepupae meal did not reduce European seabass performance. Diets replacing 3% or 20% of FM with spirulina-enriched full-fat BSFL prepupae meal produced 100% survival, and final body weight, relative growth rate, SGR and FCR did not differ significantly from the control (Zarantoniello et al., 2023).

Product quality

The enriched BSFL prepupae meal diets did not compromise edible product quality in European seabass, though some physical and lipid traits changed. Fillet fatty acid profile and lipid oxidation indicators were not negatively affected, and conjugated dienes and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances were not significantly changed by diet. The 20% FM replacement diet reduced fillet yield and changed lightness values, but fillet weight and overall quality traits remained acceptable in the context of the study (Zarantoniello et al., 2023).

Health and physiology

Gut health was maintained, but liver lipid deposition increased at the higher enriched BSFL prepupae meal level. Histological and molecular analyses did not reveal structural alteration or inflammation in the intestine, and the 20% replacement diet increased acid mucin goblet cells, which the authors related to bioactive molecules from BSFL meal and spirulina enrichment (Zarantoniello et al., 2023). Liver analyses showed higher fat accumulation in the 20% replacement group, indicating that hepatic lipid handling should be checked when full-fat enriched BSFL products are used (Zarantoniello et al., 2023).

Behaviour

Behavioural observations did not indicate welfare impairment from enriched BSFL prepupae meal. Open-field behavioural measures, including distance covered, immobility and zone use, did not differ significantly among the control, 3% replacement and 20% replacement groups (Zarantoniello et al., 2023).

Turbot (Psetta maxima)

Turbot accepted BSFL prepupae meal in the diet, but its nutritive value was limited by low palatability, low digestibility and the apparent inability of this species to degrade chitin efficiently (Kroeckel et al., 2012).

Performance

BSFL prepupae meal can only partly replace FM protein in juvenile turbot without major feed conversion penalties. Diets replacing 17%, 33%, 49%, 64% or 76% of FM protein with BSFL prepupae meal reduced SGR at all inclusion levels, and FCR increased significantly when replacement exceeded 33%; final body lipid and energy also decreased as BSFL meal inclusion increased. The authors considered 33.2% dietary BSFL meal inclusion acceptable for feed intake and FCR, but the reduction in SGR even at low replacement levels showed that this meal could not be regarded as equivalent to FM under the processing conditions tested (Kroeckel et al., 2012).

Digestibility and feed utilisation

Low digestibility was the main explanation for the weaker performance of turbot fed BSFL prepupae meal. The calculated ADC of the BSFL meal was low for organic matter, crude protein, crude lipid and gross energy, and protein retention decreased as inclusion increased (Kroeckel et al., 2012).

Product quality

Whole-body protein content was not affected by treatment, but whole-body lipid declined with higher BSFL meal inclusion, which was consistent with lower energy utilisation (Kroeckel et al., 2012).

Health and physiology

The turbot trial did not report major mortality problems, but it showed limited physiological capacity to utilise chitin from BSFL meal. No chitinase activity or chitinolytic bacteria were detected in the midgut, and the authors suggested that chitin contributed to lower feed intake, nutrient availability and digestibility (Kroeckel et al., 2012).

Behaviour and palatability

Palatability constrained the use of BSFL prepupae meal in turbot. Feed intake declined as dietary BSFL meal increased, which was interpreted as a low-palatability response and contributed to poorer growth (Kroeckel et al., 2012).
 

Crustaceans 

Black soldier fly products used in crustacean diets include black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) meal, defatted BSFL meal, BSF oil, fresh BSFL and frass. They have been tested as protein, lipid and functional feed ingredients, with results depending on product type, level of fish meal (FM) or fish oil (FO) replacement, and the balance of amino acids, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), cholesterol and minerals (Cummins et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021; Novriadi et al., 2024; Yildirim-Aksoy et al., 2022).

Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)

BSFL products can be used in Pacific white shrimp diets, but the response depends strongly on whether the product is full-fat, defatted, fresh, oil or frass. Low or moderate inclusion generally maintained or improved performance, whereas high inclusion of full-fat or fresh larvae products tended to depress growth and to affect intestinal or hepatopancreas condition (Cummins et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022; He et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021).

Performance

The best results were obtained with low to moderate BSFL inclusion, defatted BSFL meal, BSF oil or frass. High inclusion of full-fat BSFL meal or fresh BSFL was less reliable and often required diet reformulation (Cummins et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021; He et al., 2022).

In practical clear-water diets, replacing menhaden fish meal with 7 to 36% BSFL meal did not affect shrimp survival or apparent feed intake, but final weight, weight gain, specific growth rate (SGR) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) declined as BSFL meal increased; without further diet adjustment, the use of BSFL meal was considered more secure when fish meal replacement was limited to about 20% or less (Cummins et al., 2017). In diets where BSFL meal replaced 10, 20 or 30% of fish meal protein, 10 and 20% replacement maintained growth, whereas 30% replacement significantly reduced final body weight, weight gain and SGR (Chen et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022).

Defatted BSFL meal gave better results at higher replacement levels. Replacing 15, 30, 45 and 60% of fish meal with defatted BSFL meal, corresponding to 5.9, 11.8, 17.6 and 23.5% of the diet, did not impair growth or feed utilisation, but 80% fish meal replacement, corresponding to 31.3% of the diet, reduced final body weight, weight gain, SGR and survival and increased FCR (Wang et al., 2021). A defatted BSF ingredient included at 4.5, 7.5 and 10.5% improved weight gain, SGR and FCR, with no effect on survival during the growth trial (Richardson et al., 2021).

Fresh BSFL could replace part of a commercial feed, but not most of it. Replacing 25 or 50% of commercial feed with fresh BSFL on an equal wet-weight basis did not significantly impair performance, whereas 75 and 100% replacement significantly reduced survival, final body weight and weight gain (He et al., 2022). Frass inclusion up to 30% did not significantly affect final weight gain or survival, although 5% frass gave the highest and 30% frass the lowest weight gain numerically (Yildirim-Aksoy et al., 2022). Low BSF meal inclusion from 0.5 to 5%, and diets combining 0.5% BSF meal with graded BSF oil from 0.5 to 5%, improved growth and FCR in pond hapa conditions, and full replacement of fish oil with BSF oil did not depress growth (Novriadi et al., 2024).

Product quality

BSFL products generally did not create sensory data for Pacific white shrimp, but they affected body lipid and fatty acid profiles. Product quality effects therefore mainly concern proximate composition and nutritional lipid profile rather than flavour or texture (Shin et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022; Yildirim-Aksoy et al., 2022).

Increasing BSFL meal reduced whole-body protein and lipid in some trials. Whole-body protein and lipid declined with increasing BSFL meal in the clear-water study of Cummins et al. (2017), while Chen et al. (2022) reported a significant decrease in whole-shrimp crude lipid as BSFL meal replaced fish meal protein, with lower crude lipid at 20 and 30% replacement than in the fish meal control. Defatted BSFL meal also reduced whole-body and muscle crude protein at high replacement levels and reduced protein and lipid retention at 60 and 80% fish meal replacement (Wang et al., 2021).

In the insect-meal comparison, a 10% dietary BSF meal inclusion did not change whole-body proximate composition, but muscle eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) values were numerically lower in shrimp fed insect meals than in shrimp fed the tuna by-product meal control (Shin et al., 2021). Frass inclusion up to 30% did not affect whole-body composition or fillet moisture, protein and ash, but fillet lipid decreased linearly with frass inclusion and was significantly lower at 20 and 30% frass (Yildirim-Aksoy et al., 2022).

Health and physiology

Moderate BSFL inclusion often improved antioxidant or immune-related indicators, but excessive inclusion could damage the intestine or hepatopancreas. Defatted products and balanced low-inclusion formulations gave more favourable health responses than high levels of full-fat or fresh larvae (Chen et al., 2021; He et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021; Novriadi et al., 2024).

In a study with BSFL meal replacing 10, 20 and 30% of fish meal protein, the 10% replacement level increased survival after Vibrio parahaemolyticus challenge, increased microvilli height and muscle layer thickness, and upregulated anti-lipopolysaccharide factor and penaeidin 3 gene expression. The 20% level promoted a favourable shift in intestinal microbiota but reduced mucosal fold dimensions, while the 30% level caused signs of intestinal apoptosis and degeneration and downregulated several immune-related genes (Chen et al., 2021).

Defatted BSFL meal did not change trypsin, lipase or amylase activity in the hepatopancreas or intestine, and most non-specific immune indicators were unaffected. Total antioxidant capacity was higher at 80% fish meal replacement and malondialdehyde was lower from 45 to 80% replacement, but hepatocyte vacuolar degeneration, hepatic corpuscle atrophy and loss of starlike lumen appeared at 60 and 80% replacement (Wang et al., 2021). Fresh BSFL increased serum superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities at all replacement levels, but intestinal fold height and muscular thickness decreased with increasing replacement and severe intestinal damage was observed at 100% replacement (He et al., 2022).

BSF meal and oil also produced favourable immune and disease-resistance responses at low inclusion. Diets containing 0.5 to 5% BSF meal, or 0.5% BSF meal with 0.5 to 5% BSF oil, increased total haemocyte count and lysozyme activity and raised survival after Vibrio harveyi challenge from 40% in the basal group to 60 to 80% in the BSF-fed groups (Novriadi et al., 2024). By contrast, a defatted BSF ingredient at 4.5 to 10.5% improved growth but did not significantly change survival under osmotic stress, acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease or white spot syndrome virus challenges (Richardson et al., 2021).

Frass gave a narrower functional signal. Total haemocyte count, oxyhaemocyanin, serum protein and serum cholesterol were not significantly affected by 5 to 30% frass, but serum from shrimp fed 20% frass had greater inhibition of Vibrio parahaemolyticus growth than serum from the control group (Yildirim-Aksoy et al., 2022). A metabolic study indicated that 20% replacement of fish meal protein with full-fat BSFL meal promoted lipid synthesis and lipolysis, while 30% replacement weakened beta-oxidation and glycolysis and affected unsaturated fatty acid synthesis, which was consistent with reduced growth and lower body lipid (Chen et al., 2022).

Behaviour

Behaviour was not a main endpoint, but feeding observations indicate that shrimp did not reject BSFL products at tested levels. Palatability therefore appears acceptable in the short term, although this does not replace controlled behavioural work (Cummins et al., 2017; He et al., 2022). Shrimp actively and rapidly swam to pellets in the practical-diet study, indicating high apparent palatability across diets despite declining growth at higher BSFL levels (Cummins et al., 2017). In the fresh larvae study, shrimp moved actively towards fresh BSFL after feeding, suggesting that fresh larvae were attractive to shrimp (He et al., 2022).

Narrow-clawed crayfish (Pontastacus leptodactylus)

High fish meal replacement by BSFL meal improved survival but depressed growth and feed utilisation in narrow-clawed crayfish juveniles. This suggests that 50 and 100% fish meal replacement are too high without further diet optimisation, even though the product was accepted by the animals (Alvanou et al., 2023).

Performance

The main practical message is negative for growth but positive for survival. Further work should use lower replacement levels and better balanced diets before BSFL meal can be recommended for this species. In a 98-day trial, BSFL meal replaced 50 or 100% of fish meal protein in diets for juvenile narrow-clawed crayfish. Survival was low in all treatments but was significantly higher in the BSFL-fed groups than in the fish meal control, whereas final weight, weight gain and SGR were significantly lower and FCR was significantly higher in both BSFL treatments. The two BSFL treatments were similar for survival, growth and FCR, showing no improvement when 50% replacement was increased to 100% replacement (Alvanou et al., 2023).

Product quality

BSFL meal changed whole-body composition and fatty acid profile, with a shift towards lower lipid deposition and a less favourable PUFA profile. These effects should be considered when crayfish are produced for human consumption. Whole-body moisture, protein, lipid and ash values were close among treatments, but the BSFL-fed crayfish had higher moisture, protein and ash and lower lipid than the control group, indicating different metabolic utilisation of BSFL meal compared with fish meal. In fatty acid composition, BSFL meal increased lauric, myristic and palmitic acids and increased total saturated fatty acids, while total PUFA, n-6 fatty acids, linoleic acid and DHA decreased; the n-6/n-3 ratio and hypocholesterolaemic to hypercholesterolaemic fatty acid ratio increased (Alvanou et al., 2023).

Health and physiology

Specific immune, antioxidant or gut-health markers were not measured, so the health interpretation rests mainly on survival, body composition and fatty acid profile. The higher survival of BSFL-fed crayfish is encouraging, but the poorer growth and feed conversion show that the tested diets were not well suited to production. The authors suggested that the lower growth of BSFL-fed crayfish may reflect nutrient digestibility, amino acid availability or lipid/fatty acid balance rather than feed rejection alone; this is consistent with the marked changes in whole-body composition and fatty acid profile (Alvanou et al., 2023).

Behaviour

No behavioural endpoint was measured, but the feeding response did not indicate rejection of BSFL meal diets. Similar feed intake between the BSFL fed groups and the control means that lower growth was not attributed to poor feed acceptance (Alvanou et al., 2023).

Giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)

A field demonstration in Ohio suggests that a locally produced BSF frass-based feed can give production similar to a conventional sinking catfish feed in giant river prawn, with possible economic advantages. The evidence is preliminary because it was based on two ponds and did not include detailed health or nutrient-retention measurements (Tiu, 2012).

Performance

Performance was similar between the BSF frass-based feed and the conventional feed in the field comparison. The BSF-based feed was also cheaper in that trial, which is relevant because feed is a major variable cost in freshwater prawn production. Two half-acre ponds were stocked with freshwater prawn juveniles, with one pond receiving a traditional sinking catfish pellet and the other receiving the EnviroFlight diet based on BSF frass and wheat middlings. The ponds produced nearly identical total weights and individual prawn weights at harvest, while the BSF-based feed cost less than the conventional feed in the reported comparison (Tiu, 2012).

Product quality

The main product-quality effect was colour, not flavour. Prawns fed the EnviroFlight diet were slightly paler than those fed the traditional diet, and experienced tasters did not detect a flavour difference. All prawns from both ponds were sold at the same price, and one customer preferred the paler appearance of the prawns fed the EnviroFlight diet because it recalled marine shrimp (Tiu, 2012).

Other species 

Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis Daudin)

Dried black soldier fly pupae, reared on food waste, and fed to juvenile alligators in a 3-month trial were less well accepted than a commercial feed and, therefore, not recommended, even though they supported growth (Bodri et al., 2007).

Mountain chicken frogs (Leptodactylus fallax)

Black soldier fly larvae can supply high levels of dietary minerals without a need for additional Ca, provided target species "chew" their food or worms are processed in a way to break the exoskeleton (Dierenfeld et al., 2008).

Nutritional tables
Tables of chemical composition and nutritional value 

Avg: average or predicted value; SD: standard deviation; Min: minimum value; Max: maximum value; Nb: number of values (samples) used

Main analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Dry matter % as fed 91.7 6.8 70.9 98.5 13  
Crude protein % DM 56.6 9.9 41.1 71 13  
Crude fibre % DM 16.1   13 18.2 3  
Neutral detergent fibre % DM 24   14.2 32.5 4  
Acid detergent fibre % DM 13.3   9.3 19.9 4  
Lignin % DM 1.7   0 2.9 3  
Ether extract % DM 12 5.4 4.6 20.9 10  
Ash % DM 12.8 6.4 5.2 24.9 10  
Starch (polarimetry) % DM 0.9          
Starch (enzymatic) % DM 0.9         *
Total sugars % DM 4.7       1  
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 21.7 1.8 19 24.4 6 *
               
Amino acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Alanine g/16g N 6.3 1.1 3.8 7.3 7 *
Arginine g/16g N 4.7 1 2.7 5.7 8 *
Aspartic acid g/16g N 9 1.8 5.1 9.8 7 *
Cystine g/16g N 0.6 0.2 0.4 1 7 *
Glutamic acid g/16g N 9.9 1.3 6.7 10.5 7 *
Glycine g/16g N 5.9 1.3 3 6.4 7 *
Histidine g/16g N 2.9 1.1 1.9 5.5 7 *
Isoleucine g/16g N 4.3 0.9 2.4 5.2 7 *
Leucine g/16g N 6.9 1.5 3.8 8.6 8 *
Lysine g/16g N 5.5 1 4 7.1 6 *
Methionine g/16g N 1.8 0.1 1.8 2.2 6 *
Methionine+cystine g/16g N 2.4 0.3 2.3 3 5 *
Phenylalanine g/16g N 3.8 0.8 2.1 4.2 8 *
Phenylalanine+tyrosine g/16g N 9.9 1.1 8.4 10.9 5 *
Proline g/16g N 5.7 1 3.3 6.7 7 *
Serine g/16g N 4.2 0.8 2.5 5 7 *
Threonine g/16g N 3.8 0.8 2.3 4.6 8 *
Tryptophan g/16g N 1.4 0.1 1.3 1.6 5  
Tyrosine g/16g N 6.1 1.4 2.8 6.8 6 *
Valine g/16g N 6 1.3 3.4 7.2 8 *
               
Fatty acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Myristic acid C14:0 % fatty acids 6.9 1.2 5.1 9.5 8  
Palmitic acid C16:0 % fatty acids 12.6 4.1 8.7 19.8 8  
Palmitoleic acid C16:1 % fatty acids 4.5 2.3 2 7.6 8  
Stearic acid C18:0 % fatty acids 2.3 1.8 1 6.5 8  
Oleic acid C18:1 % fatty acids 12.4 5.8 6 22.7 8  
Linoleic acid C18:2 % fatty acids 7.5 3.1 3.7 12.2 8  
Linolenic acid C18:3 % fatty acids 1.1 0.3 0.7 1.4 5  
               
Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Calcium g/kg DM 43.2 30 6.2 84.4 9  
Phosphorus g/kg DM 8 1.3 6.4 10.4 10  
Potassium g/kg DM 10.5 3.5 7.7 16.2 6  
Sodium g/kg DM 1.55 0.7 0.88 2.66 6  
Chlorine g/kg DM 2.4         *
Magnesium g/kg DM 3.9 0.6 3.5 5 6  
Sulfur g/kg DM 3.9   2.8 4.6 4  
Manganese mg/kg DM 258   172 320 4  
Zinc mg/kg DM 116   96 131 4  
Copper mg/kg DM 14   13 16 4  
Iron mg/kg DM 198   119 302 3  
               
Pig nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Energy digestibility, growing pig % 75.8       1 *
DE growing pig MJ/kg DM 16.4         *
MEn growing pig MJ/kg DM 15         *
NE growing pig MJ/kg DM 9.7         *
Nitrogen digestibility, growing pig % 85          
               
Poultry nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
AMEn cockerel MJ/kg DM 15.5         *
AMEn broiler MJ/kg DM 15         *
               
Rabbit nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
DE rabbit MJ/kg DM 15.9         *
MEn rabbit MJ/kg DM 13.6         *
Energy digestibility, rabbit % 73.5         *
Nitrogen digestibility, rabbit % 83.1         *

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

References

AFZ, 2025; Arango Gutierrez et al., 2004; Barrows et al., 2015; Crosbie et al., 2020; Katz, 2013; Kroeckel et al., 2012; Kyntäjä et al., 2014; Mwaniki et al., 2018; Schiavone et al., 2017

Last updated on 19/06/2026 23:40:17

Main analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Dry matter % as fed 91.7 5.8 73.9 97.6 16  
Crude protein % DM 41.1 3.9 35 48.2 24  
Crude fibre % DM 9.4 1.7 7 11.2 6  
Neutral detergent fibre % DM 17.4 2.3 15.1 21.2 6  
Acid detergent fibre % DM 9.2   8.7 10.1 4  
Lignin % DM 2.7   1.3 5 3  
Ether extract % DM 35.5 6.4 22.2 49 17  
Ash % DM 11.7 6.3 2.7 28.4 18  
Starch (polarimetry) % DM 0.9       1  
Starch (enzymatic) % DM 0.9         *
Total sugars % DM 0          
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 25.8 2 23.8 29.4 7 *
               
Amino acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Alanine g/16g N 6.4 1.1 5.1 8.8 19 *
Arginine g/16g N 5 0.5 4 6.1 19 *
Aspartic acid g/16g N 9 1.4 7 12.5 19 *
Cystine g/16g N 0.6 0.1 0.5 0.9 10 *
Glutamic acid g/16g N 10.4 1.6 8.2 14.1 19 *
Glycine g/16g N 5.4 0.6 4.5 6.8 19 *
Histidine g/16g N 3.1 0.4 2.2 3.6 17 *
Isoleucine g/16g N 4.2 0.6 3.3 5.6 19 *
Leucine g/16g N 7 0.7 6 8.4 18 *
Lysine g/16g N 5.8 0.8 4.2 8 19 *
Methionine g/16g N 1.8 0.4 0.9 2.5 19 *
Methionine+cystine g/16g N 2.4 1.1 2.2 6.2 11 *
Phenylalanine g/16g N 4 0.6 3.4 5.6 16 *
Phenylalanine+tyrosine g/16g N 9.7 1.6 7.6 13.1 11 *
Proline g/16g N 5.6 0.8 4.8 7.7 16 *
Serine g/16g N 4 0.5 3.4 5 18 *
Threonine g/16g N 3.9 0.5 2.9 4.8 18 *
Tryptophan g/16g N 1.4 0.1 1.3 1.6 5  
Tyrosine g/16g N 5.7 1 3.6 7.7 14 *
Valine g/16g N 6 1.2 5.1 9.1 19 *
               
Fatty acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Myristic acid C14:0 % fatty acids 6.9 1.2 5.1 9.5 8  
Palmitic acid C16:0 % fatty acids 12.6 4.1 8.7 19.8 8  
Palmitoleic acid C16:1 % fatty acids 4.5 2.3 2 7.6 8  
Stearic acid C18:0 % fatty acids 2.3 1.8 1 6.5 8  
Oleic acid C18:1 % fatty acids 12.4 5.8 6 22.7 8  
Linoleic acid C18:2 % fatty acids 7.5 3.1 3.7 12.2 8  
Linolenic acid C18:3 % fatty acids 1.1 0.3 0.7 1.4 5  
               
Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Calcium g/kg DM 33 22.3 1.2 86.3 18  
Phosphorus g/kg DM 7.2 2.7 4 15 20  
Potassium g/kg DM 7.6 2 5.9 12.2 17  
Sodium g/kg DM 0.99 0.28 0.6 1.41 17  
Chlorine g/kg DM 1.5         *
Magnesium g/kg DM 3.2 0.8 2.1 4.6 17  
Sulfur g/kg DM 1.7 1.2 0.1 3 11  
Manganese mg/kg DM 203 172 20 730 16  
Zinc mg/kg DM 101 71 50 271 16  
Copper mg/kg DM 12 8 6 34 13  
Iron mg/kg DM 409 449 74 1568 15  
               
Pig nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
Energy digestibility, growing pig % 78       1 *
DE growing pig MJ/kg DM 20.2         *
MEn growing pig MJ/kg DM 19.1         *
NE growing pig MJ/kg DM 14.6         *
Nitrogen digestibility, growing pig % 85          
               
Poultry nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
AMEn cockerel MJ/kg DM 21.6         *
AMEn broiler MJ/kg DM 20.1         *
               
Rabbit nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb  
DE rabbit MJ/kg DM 20.8         *
MEn rabbit MJ/kg DM 19         *
Energy digestibility, rabbit % 80.3         *
Nitrogen digestibility, rabbit % 81.5         *

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.

References

AFZ, 2025; Arango Gutierrez et al., 2004; Barrows et al., 2015; Barry, 2004; Crosbie et al., 2020; De Marco et al., 2015; Haasbroek, 2016; Kyntäjä et al., 2014; Newton et al., 1977; Newton et al., 2005; Sealey et al., 2011; Spranghers et al., 2017; St-Hilaire et al., 2007; Tschirner et al., 2015

Last updated on 19/06/2026 23:44:38

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148 references found
Datasheet citation 

Tran G., Gnaedinger C., Mélin C., 2026. Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens). Feedipedia, a programme by INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/16388 Last updated on June 25, 2026, 16:25

English correction by Tim Smith (Animal Science consultant) and Hélène Thiollet (AFZ)
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